The Usefulness of Spatial Abilities - Essay Example

? A replication of Simmons’ spatial updating based on self-motion using iPad and the effect of retention delays on spatial updating Abstract This experiment was carried out to replicate Simmons’s experiment about spatial updating on iPad and test whether egocentric memory is faster forgetting. According to previous studies, egocentric representation can be updated to accommodate self-motion. A between subjects design with 4 conditions: N, P, S, SP was used to replicate Simmons’s experiment in 1999 using iPad. Participants were shown a picture which contained 5 basic shapes using iPad in each trial. They had 3 seconds to remember the location of them. After that, they were required to close their eyes for 10 seconds. Then they were asked to view the new picture on iPad and tell which one’s location was changed. In N and S condition, the second picture was the same as the first one but one shape’s location was changed. However, in P and SP condition, the second picture was the rotated first picture and one shape’s location was changed as well. In S and SP condition they were asked to move the location around the table to change their viewpoint during the delay time. Experiment 2 using a 2X2 within-subjects design (subjects move or not vs. 10s or 60s retention delay) to test is there faster forgetting of egocentric memory that has been updated based on self-motion cues? This study found that the egocentric is faster forgetting, and that participants may do significantly worse in long delay S condition than short delay S condition. This study also found that the rotation effects indicating spatial updating based on self-motion cues can be replicated using iPad. These findings suggest that real world scene recognition involves more than retinal images. Table of Content Abstract.........................................................................................................................2 Introduction..................................................................................................................4 Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………..8 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………...9 Participants…………………………………………………………………………...……...10 Procedure………………………………………………………………………………….....10 Results ……………………………………………………………………………………....11 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………….………….12 Reference…………….………………………………………………………………….......16 Introduction. In the daily living, one basic need involves the utility of the spatial ability. Spatial ability involves the ability to encode and remember the objects location, building, or landmarks in space. The spatial ability has been linked with the geometric processing properties like size, distance, and dynamic properties like strength and velocity. The potential of encoding the objects traits like location, size, and orientation can be defined as spatial. Other scholars have defined the ability for one to navigate in his environment as spatial since it requires the properties understanding (Andrade & Meudell, 1993). This means that the different categories of information and processes are useful in locating directions and positions within the environment. On the other hand, the orientation and location of an object may not be encoded without finding out the frame of reference. In this case, the frame of reference involves a coordinate the works as a point of anchor. The memory of humans utilizes the reference frames in specifying the object’s locations that are recalled (Berti et al, 2001). The spatial information is normally structured within those coordinate systems that represent the spatial positions. For the spatial cognition domain, the system of spatial reference is used in encoding and organizing the spatial information in memory. This information is divided into allocentric and egocentric. The egocentric reference frames utilizes the organism as the organization centre space. The head-centred, retinotopic, and body center reference frames could work as points of anchor of organizing the spatial information. The egocentric representation is always sensitive to the vantage points thus defined as either orientation dependent, or orientation specific. In many cases, the spatial location access is depended on the link between the organism and the needed location (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). On the other hand, allocentric references frames involve the spatial positions in the environment which are equiavailable and give out the spatial representation that is considered being environment free (Berti et al, 2001). Different studies on spatial memory have concentrated on either the role of allocentric and egocentric or how the spatial information memory functions. In this respect, there is no study that has reported the replication of Simmons’ spatial updating based on self-motion. This paper the replication of Simmons’ spatial updating based on self-motion using iPad and the effect of retention delays on spatial updating. Even though neuropsychological research on brain has failed to address this topic in a direct manner, there has been a number of studies on allocentric and egocentric deficits among different disorders (Bird & Burgess, 2008). In unilateral neglect, and optic ataxia, the patients are normally impaired in conceiving the mid-sagital body plane involving the primary egocentric information. It has also been displayed in different studies that the unilateral neglect could consider the contralesional objects’ side in an independent manner from the observer’s position (Berti et al, 2001). The left allocentric frame has been linked to the hypoperfusion of the right superior gyrus, and the left egocentric is linked to the right hypoperfusion of the right angular gyrus (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). A recent study made a comparison between the right and left parietal lesioned brain on an allocentric and the egocentric spatial task memory (Bird & Burgess, 2008). The results displayed the drop on the right patients dramatically in the judgment of the egocentric frames. The results equally displayed a healthy allocentric control of judgment. The left patients, however, displayed a huge disability in all the spatial components. Such a pattern of the outcome needs to be interpreted as those evidences that the appropriate hemisphere is extremely specified in a metric processing of the information to the egocentric reference frames (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008; Bruyer et al, 1997). In general, this study reported that the neuropsychological data displays a specialization that is selective for the allocentric and the egocentric processing that is normally subserved through specific but partial neutral overlapping areas. Specifically, the researchers have agreed with the central function that is undertaken by the circuits of hippocampal (Committeri et al 2004). Different from the bases that are neutral, allocentric and the egocentric frames appear to differ in respect to the intentional levels of the resources that they need. Another study on this field proposed a vital research framework for study in the memory, which automatically contracted and the processes that are effortless in the given framework (Bruyer et al, 1997). This means that they gave a suggestion, whereby the retrieval and the encoding of spatial information was extremely basic to the living species survival (Berti et al, 2001). These suggestions resulted into the birth of many spatial memories. The procedure championed for the explicit control of allocentric and egocentric frames in deploying the tasks and the type of spatial information that is processed (Bird & Burgess, 2008). Those tasks in demand of the allocentric processing display no evidence favouring the automatic processing. The tasks favouring the egocentric processing will always outline the automatic processing nature of the involved processes (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). The accuracy confirmation percentage of the systems of processing could differ depending on the attention that is needed (Bruyer et al, 1997). For example, the performances that are highly accurate tend to be automatic, whereas those performances that have little accuracy may be extremely effortful, in allocentric tasks, accuracy may vary from a percentage of 36 to a percentage of 56 (Committeri et al 2004). In the egocentric tasks, the range may vary from a percentage of 80 to a percentage of 90 (Berti et al, 2001). Different studies on the allocentric and the egocentric systems of spatial processing could provide information concerning the traits of the frames of reference. To date, the changes in the principle mental imagery, visuo-spatial potential, and the abilities of navigation have widely been investigated (Bird & Burgess, 2008). The outcome from the investigation appears controversial, and does not provide a clear outline concerning what spatial process may decline with the age and with the preserved one. In respect to the allocentric and the egocentric distinction, the best knowledge regarding the spatial memory and aging, did not display the issue (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). A number of spatial tasks have been used like pointing tasks, and the results were interpreted as being allocentric consistence or the organisations that are egocentric of the spatial understanding. One study in the spatial discrimination established that spatial memory is involved in comparing elderly that are healthy and the young individuals (Bruyer et al, 1997). This study found out no significance effect of age on the spatial performance, and a slight decline. Another comparison between the elderly healthy individuals, patients having Alzhermers illness, and the patients having a mild cognitive disability was made. The comparison involved the task navigation in respect to either allocentric or egocentric components (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). The study found out a huge deficient in the component of allocentric for the patients but not in any elderly individual who was healthy. Another study on this topic compared the performance of the healthy subjects with ages between 20 to 80 in spatial tasks, which needed the allocentric and the egocentric spatial judgments (Bird & Burgess, 2008). The results highlighted that the aging individuals had an impact that was considered being negative towards the egocentric component beginning from the eighties. On the other hand, the allocentric component was relatively preserved. This results demonstrated that the two components would be supported, in most cases, partially areas of neural considered as being particularly vulnerable to the aging processes that are normal (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). Another study on this field explored how the allocentric and the egocentric combine (Berti et al, 2001). According to Cohen & Andersen (2002), the experiments that were recent displayed the demand for a model revision on the spatial memory having the representations of the viewpoint that is specific. Further, it appeared that the allocentric and the egocentric representations existed in a manner that was parallel and combined to give a supportive behaviour in respect to the task (Bird & Burgess, 2008). Other studies showed out that the roles that were complementary for the representations with the quantity of movement between the retrieval presentations included the remembered object’s number, the familiarity of the size, and the intrinsic environmental structures (Bird & Burgess, 2008). These studies also highlighted that getting to know the mechanism of neurons roles regard the different representations together with their interactions gave out a frame work to investigate the human memory organisation in a general way (Committeri et al 2004). Evidently, there are limited documented studies regarding the replication of Simmons’ spatial updating. This study is vital for the understanding of the spatial memory (Bird & Burgess, 2008). In this regard, this review calls for a study to be done to investigate the replication of Simmons’ spatial updating based on self-motion using iPad and the effect of retention delays on spatial updating. Methodology Research is defined as the organized and systematic manner of looking for answers to questions. Systematic in the sense that there are definite sets of steps and procedures to be follow and organized in the sense that there are defined procedures in carrying out the research (Blaxter, Hughes, & Tight, 1996). Finding the expected answers is the ultimate goal of any research work. This study employed a quantitative research. In this context, a quantitative research is used to refer to systematic investigation of a phenomenon through a computation technique (Briffa, Osborn & Schweingruber, 2001). Given that this study aimed at employing and coming up with mathematical models that pertain to some phenomena, the use of this method was very appropriate. It is worth noting that measurement processes were key elements as far as this study was concerned since quantitative research method is characterized by helping provide fundamental connections linking mathematical expressions and observations; it was employed in this study to help in analyzing numerical data presented. Its attributable merits that made it suitable for this study include the fact that, first, it involves the validation and testing of the theories that already existed. Second, it involves tasting of the hypotheses which was constructed before data collection. Third, it can lead to generalization of data especially if the data obtained is based on the random sufficient samples. However, this research method, just like other methods has its shortcomings. It is has been noted that while using this method, the focus on the testing of the hypothesis may make a researcher to miss out the occurring phenomena. Moreover, when using this method, the Knowledge obtained from this study may be very general and abstract that the direct application in the contexts, individuals, local situations may not be possible. The research had to ensure such shortcomings do not affect the outcome of the study. Research Design Given that this study was scientific based; this study employed an experimental design in its quest to investigate the causal relationship between parameters under consideration. As noted by Robson (1990) Experimental design is a systematic, scientific approach to field research where researchers have to manipulate one or more variables, controls while measuring changes in other variables. This design according to Robson involves the collection of research design that utilizes manipulation, as well as, controlled testing in understanding of the causal processes. Certainly, this strategy is common in scientific research and just like it was used in this study; it finds application in field such as biology, medicine, chemistry and sociology (Robson, 1990). The use of this design was to help establish the a causal relationship where there was time priority, in a causal relationship where there was consistency, and where the correlation magnitude found to be great. This research design was employed in this study considering the fact that first, it was an experiment of memory and facilitates recognition. Second, this study addresses causality due to its controls on the extraneous variable. The major shortcoming of this research design is that for the case of laboratory experiment, it is difficult to control the lab settings. Participants In the first experiment, as well as the second experiment there were 16 students: 8 males and 8 females participated in the experiment on a voluntary basis. They had a mean age of 20.4 years and a SD of 1.73. These participants understood the set of instructions quite well without much difficulty and none of them was informed of the hypothesis at the time of doing the tasting. Additionally, they were right handed with a normal and corrected normal sight. The two experiments were carried out in a sound-proofed comfortable room with participants sitting on straight-back chair placed at 30 cm from the desk that measured 150 cm by 100 cm. Procedure Experiment 1 was a within-subjects design and there were in general 4 conditions: N, P, S, SP. As highlighted above 16 participants were required for the experiment. For purposes of counterbalancing, these participants were divided into 4 groups (4 for each group). Each participant had 40 trials and there were 40 different displays for each participant. Group A did 10 N, 10 S, 10 P and 10 SP while Group B did 10 S, 10 P, 10 SP and 10 N. Group C did 10 P, 10 SP, 10 N and 10 S while Group D did 10 SP, 10 N, 10 S and 10 P. In each of the trials, there were two pictures. The first picture contained 5 different basic shapes. In N and S condition, the second picture was the same as the first one but one shape’s location was changed. However, in P and SP condition, the second picture was rotated first picture and one shape’s location was also changed. IPad was on the table and participants sat at the table. In each trial, participants were asked to view the picture on iPad for 3s and try to remembering the location of all shapes. Then participants were asked to close their eyes for a period of 10s and in S and SP condition they were asked to move the location around the table for purposes of changing their viewpoint. After retention delay, participants were shown the second picture on iPad and asked to tell which shapes had changed. In experiment 2, there were also 16 participants. A 2X2 within subject design was used in this experiment. 2 conditions: N and S were tested with short (10s) and long (60s) retention delay. Similar to the first experiment, participants were asked to move the location around the table in S condition. Each condition contained 10 trials hence there were 40 trials for each participant. The data for the two experiments was analyzed basing on an ordinal scale with the answers being either 1 or 0. This way, if a shape is changed and the answer is B, it will be wrong (0). Then, for each participant, data was be divided according to the condition. The percentage of doing the correct choice for each condition was calculated for the two experiments. A within-subjects ANOVA was then used for the first experiment to see if there were significant effects within the four conditions. A 2X2 ANOVA was used for the second experiment, because there were two levels: subjects move or not; short or long retention delay. Results Results for experiment 1 The analysis was based upon the ANOVA with the within-subjects design and there were in general 4 conditions: N, P, S, SP. ANOVA on the mean accuracy did reveal that N and P (M= 0.901, SD=0.146), were significant than N and SP (M= 0.69, SD= 0.99) F (1,38) = 28.514 c2= 0.42,p < .001. Results also revealed that there was no significant difference between N and S (F < 1) see (Table 2). ANOVA on N and S and P and SP revealed that N and S was higher than P and SP, F (1, 38) = 31.084, and c2 = 0.45, p < 0.001. Their related means were found to be: N and S = 1.28 with SD = 0.445 and P and SP = 1.88 and SD = 0.814. It was further found that N (M = 1.34and SD = .418) was significantly higher than S (M = 1.82, and SD = .716), F (1, 38) = 9.1223, c2= 0.20, p < .005. Lastly, no significant difference was found between SP and P, F< 1. On the overall, the data pattern clearly shows that the rotation effects indicating spatial updating based on self-motion cues can be replicated using iPad. A strong replication for the N and P over N and SP emerged. Percentages of replication were observed to be similar to the previous studies 90 percent and 73 percent respectively. In respect to the hypothesis, these results confirm that there is a significant difference between N and P and N and SP. The results are also in tandem with the hypothesis in that they indicate that there is no significant difference between N and S. However, N and S were not same as P and SP. Probably, these results was due to other ecological impacts of the experimental manipulation, which operationalzed the two. Indeed, all four were easily visible with the participants maintaining the seating position throughout the session of the experimental. Experimental Results A 2X2 ANOVA within subject design were utilized in analyzing of the data. Regarding results, the ANOVA revealed significant main effect between N (F (1, 39) = 39.99, c2= 0.51, p < .001,) and S both with long retention delay (M = .904, SD = .15). N and S with long retention delay were significantly lower than the N and S with short retention delay F> 1). These results reflect the hypothetical outcomes in which it was expected that there should be significant effect between N and S with long retention delay, though it failed to confirm that none with short retention delay would be significant. Discussion The data pattern clearly shows that the egocentric is faster forgetting, so participants may do significantly worse in long delay S condition than short delay S condition. These findings suggest that real world scene recognition involves more than retinal images. Information about the ego-motion of the observer can greatly facilitate scene recognition from novel viewpoints. Thus, to fully understand how we perceive and act in the world we need to study these phenomena in actual environments and to consider the interaction of extra-retinal information with visual representations. This finding clearly shows that space plays a role in all our behaviour and spatial memory is useful for every-day tasks. Within the endeavour, the field of spatial cognition is particularly well placed due to the ease with which similar spatial experimental paradigms can be applied to both humans and animals. Thus neuroscientific findings in animals can be integrated with noninvasive (behavioural, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging) findings in humans. Spatial memory appears to be supported by multiple parallel representations, including egocentric and allocentric representations (Burgess, 2006). Both of them interact at the same time, but egocentric representation can be updated to accommodate self-motion (Wang and Simmons, 1999). Studies have held spatial memory can be associated with multiple representation that are considered as being parallel, such as the allocentric and the egocentric representations, together with the ones that are updated for the accommodation of self motion (Berti et al, 2001). Bruyer et al. (1997), asserted that the impact of the representation may include the behaviours that are dissociated in terms of development and their bases that are neutral. Some researchers have indicated that is quite possible for one to make up a mechanistic neural-level model having at least some components regarding the spatial imagery and memory, having the hippocampus, and the temporal medial lobe that gives out the environment for the allocentric representations (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). In view of Bird and Burgess (2008) our environment was established in order to help suit the interaction of egocentric representation together with the cortex retrosplenial and the sulcus parieto-occipital. These researchers highlighted that one common construction mechanism of the scenes that are spatial in the imagery service, and the episodic retrieval involves the remaining papez’s circuit oriented the used viewpoint. Andrade and Meudell (1993) also showed that the hippocampal and the systems that are striatal can provide different aspects concerning the layout of the environment. There are more evidences of egocentric, as well as allocentric spartial frames of reference as explored from literature with most studies focusing on spatial memory. According Andrade and Meudell (1993) the spatial positions considered to be within the environment are derived and equia available representations. For example, objects, or objects parts, local features, salient landmarks, and other features like the global traits such as mountains, axes that are intrinsic, azimuth of the sun and the gravity direction. This has made the allocentric frames be referred to as environmental (Bird & Burgess, 2008). One theoretical model assigned a basic role to allocentric and egocentric system processing in action and perception (Berti et al, 2001). Cohen & Andersen (2002), argued out that the representation that are egocentric have a particular relevance in movement control and in the space within the surrounding under the perpetual control. This in the view of these studies makes it possible for obstacles to be avoided or reached. Avraamides and Kelly (2008) indicated that the different actions are normally done in a peripersonal space, more often than not, considered being at a distance that is arm-reaching which demands fine-grained information metric. Avraamides and Kelly (2008) hold that allocentric representation posses vital functions in objects recognition, planning, and scenes movements. This means that the considerations allocentric and egocentric system reference appear being related in terms of their functions and other theoretical differences in the domain of spatial processing (Cohen & Andersen, 2002). In yet another study conducted in this field reported that one distinction of categorical and coordinate spatial procession could be linked to allocentric and egocentric reference frames (Berti et al, 2001). Elaborating on this subject Committeri et al (2004) showed that the categorical representation involves the non metric invariant relation of objects and the real self. On the other hand, the coordinate system involves those metric variables concerning objects and the actual self (Andrade & Meudell, 1993; Avraamides & Kelly, 2008)). Another clear difference involves the peripersonal space, whereby there exist a vivid integration between bodies an objects thus the egocentric frame predominates the extrapersonal space (Berti et al, 2001). Some recent studies on the brain reported that the perieto-frontal circuits, the parietal cortex, premotor cortex are normally involved in the process of egocentric reference (Bruyer et al, 1997). Other studies have argued out that allocentric processing is linked to the hippocampus (Berti et al, 2001). In addition to this, the cells having the allocentric reference traits are individuated in the formation that is individuated on objects under a free motion. This study concluded that there were minimal studies that have examined the networks that are linked to the allocentric and the egocentric reference frames (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). One MRI study displayed that the lateral and the posterior frontal premotor regions in the right hemisphere are more activated by the information that is egocentric (Berti et al, 2001). The same results were confirmed by Committeri et al (2004), who reported that that the parietal frontal network having the egocentric roles. This study compared allocentric and the egocentric coding of the actual three dimensional objects and displayed that the egocentric coding was responsible for the activation of regions in the dorsal stream and in the front lobes (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). On the other hand, the allocentric coding was linked to birth the ventral and the dorsal regions. There was a significant involvement of the medical superior area and the prunes in the egocentric processing spatial relations (Bird & Burgess, 2008). The increased involvement of the actual parietal cortex, the visual ventral stream and the formation hippocampal was required for the spatial allocentric coding (Committeri et al, 2004). Other studies on this field highlighted the neutral bases of many navigation tasks such as collaborators, and rosenbaum (Berti et al, 2001). This study established that there exist a similar activation in the medial temporal lobe such as the right gyrus parahippocampal (Bird & Burgess, 2008). Additionally, the posterior and medial parietal cortex are link to the egocentric processing, and the retrosplenial cortex is linked with allocentric processing (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). In this case, there was a display of specific navigation network that involved the real hippocampus, and the precuneous left insula (Bird & Burgess, 2008). This study also found out that whenever the participants are involved in a direct navigation of the mental task, the right inferior and the right hippocampus parietal cortex were activated strongly, and the detour navigation activated the middle and left superior frontal gyri (Avraamides & Kelly, 2008). In this regard, what is more, the experiment using iPad can also made this experiment easily moved and replicated. It will be helpful to arouse people to design more and more psychology experiments on iPad for convenience. References. Andrade, J., & Meudell, P. (1993). Is spatial information encodedautomatically? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46,365-375. Avraamides, M., & Kelly, J. (2008). Multiple systems of spatial memory and action. Cognitive processing, 9(2), 93-106. Berti, et al. (2001). 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