Investigating the Levels of Processing Model of Memory - Essay Example

?An experiment to investigate the ‘Levels of Processing model of memory’ Introduction Memory is defined as the process of maintaining information over time in the brain. Memory is important for all people as it is involved in processing large amounts of information. The information is processed in different forms including sounds, meaning and images among others. There are also different stages of memory that include encoding, storage and retrieval (Rice et al 2000). Information can be processed or encoded in three different ways including visual, acoustic and semantic ways. It has been argued that the main coding system in short-term memory is acoustic coding and the main encoding system in long-term memory is semantic coding (Gross 2010). Different researches, such as the one done by Bartlett & Tulving (1974) have been developed with respect to processing information either semantically or acoustically. Other researchers and authors have stated that people recall more words that are semantically processed rather than words that are acoustically processed. For instance, Craik & Tulving (1975 cited in Rice et al 2000) compared the three levels of encoding by presenting a word to participants quickly. They then asked a question which encouraged participants to process a certain word in the three levels of encoding. They found out that using semantic processing provided the best or the most effective recall. Others have argued that people recall more words that are acoustically processed rather than words that are semantically processed in short-term memory. This study will examine whether people motor recall words that are semantically processed as opposed to words that are acoustically processed. Craik & Lockhart’s theory (1972 cited in Rice et al 2000) mentions that there is not much difference or distinction between short-term and long-term memory. While establishing whether recall happens best at semantic or acoustic processing, the study will also be proving this concept. The level of processing theory established by Craik & Lockhart (1972 cited in Rice et al 2000) concentrates on the processes that are involved in memory. This model is an unstructured approach and will be used to explain this study. The theory explains that memory occurs due to the processing of information and there is no clear distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory. The aim of this study is captured in the Laboratory experiment that was conducted to investigate whether the way in which participants recall information is directly affected by the way the question is processed. The study uses an experimental hypothesis; Participants will recall more words that are semantically processed compared to words that are acoustically processed. The experimental hypothesis is one tail because the study aims at proving one side (semantic processing); that is whether people recall more words that are semantically processed and not the other. The Null hypothesis: There will be no difference in the number of words recalled that have been semantically processed compared to words that are acoustically processed. Method Design This study was a laboratory experiment as it allows for precise control of variables; this control allows the researcher to conclude that it is the independent variable, and nothing else, which is influencing the dependent variable. In this experiment, participants were tested by a repeated-measures design. Independent Variable: Questions involving semantic or acoustic processing Dependent Variable: The number of semantically or acoustically processed words recalled Participants Twenty participants, a mixture of males and females ranging from 18 to 65 years old, were selected using an opportunity sample. This sample was used, as it was the most convenient. The majority of the participants live in Essex. None of the participants was paid for taking part. Materials The task sheet had a series of questions, which were either acoustic or semantic, followed by a stimulus word, which were nouns. The participants answered the question by ticking either the yes or no box. For example, ‘does the word rhyme with insect – Elephant?’ Participants then marked yes or no box. The following materials were also used: Introduction sheet (see appendix 1) Debrief sheet (see appendix 2) Procedure Each participant was tested individually and in different environments. First, each participant were read instructions regarding the study (see appendix /). Then each participant was given thirty questions, fifteen of them were acoustic and the other fifteen were semantic. They were allowed as much time as they required to answer the questions. Once they had finished the researcher took this away before presenting the participant with a blank sheet of paper, they were then asked to recall the stimulus words, in any order. Again, the participants were allowed as much time as they needed. Finally, the participants were debriefed (see annex) and were given the opportunity to ask any questions that they may have had. Ethics Informed consent Each participant were giving an outline of the study and then asked for their consent Participants were told of their right to withdraw when having the instructions read to them Deception Deception was unavoidable in this study as the aim was to see if the way questions are asked affects recall of the stimulus words However this did not lead to any harm, anger or objection from participants Protection from harm Researcher watched the behavior of participants when answering the questions and when recalling the stimulus words to make sure they were not embarrassed or felt offended At the end of the study participants were promoted to contact the researcher if they had any worries or concerns Confidentiality In the instruction participants were told that their results shall be kept anonymous and confidential In the debrief they were asked for consent to include the results in the research The right to withdraw At the start of the study participants were made aware of their right to stop at any point during the study Participants were then told of their right to withdraw their results they had provided if they wish to do so Debrief Participants were told the overall aim of the study The reasons for the study Deception was revealed, explained and justified Participants were asked if they have any questions See appendix British Psychological Society’s Ethical principles for conducting research with human participants (1998 cited in Haralambos 2002). Results Descriptive Statistics Mean number of words recalled from semantic and acoustic conditions Total number of participants 20 Total number of words recalled Semantic 90 Acoustic 61 Mean number for semantically processed words 4.5 Mean number for acoustic processed words 3.05 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS ‘A Wilcoxon ‘T’ test was chosen for the following reasons: the hypothesis predicts a difference between the two sets of data, the two sets of data are pairs of scores from one person (or a matched pair) = related and the data are ordinal or interval.” Inferential Statistics Summary Table N Significance level Critical value ‘T’ 1 or 2 Tails? Significant Yes/No 15 P? 0.05 30 8 1 Yes ‘For all calculations see Appendix. A significance level of P ? 0.05 was used, as is usual in psychology, because it is neither too strict, nor too lenient. The Wilcoxon ‘T’ test resulted in a calculated value of 8. ‘T’ = 8 was less than the critical value of 30 when N = 15 at the 0.05 level of significance for a one-tailed hypothesis. Because ‘T’ = 8, less than 30. The result is significant. A significant difference was found at the P ? 0.05 level. This means that the probability that this result happened by chance is a less than, or equal to 5%. This means that it is possible to be 95% confident that the manipulation of the independent variable caused the significant change in the dependent variable. The Experimental Hypothesis, ‘Participants will recall more words that are semantically processed compared to words that are phonemically processed” has been supported. The Null Hypothesis, ‘The way participants process words will have no effect on their memory of them” has not been supported. Discussion The Laboratory experiment that was conducted was to investigate whether the way in which participants recall information is directly affected by the way the question is processed. The study used an experimental hypothesis stating that participants will recall more words that are semantically processed compared to words that are acoustically processed. The results from the study indicate that people recall more words that are semantically processed as compared to the words that are acoustically processed. As the study indicates, the total number of words recalled that are semantically processed was 90. On the other hand, acoustically processed words that were recalled were 61. The participants that were included in the study were 20, in total. The mean number for semantic words that were recalled was 4.5 while the mean number of acoustic words was 3.05. This proves the hypothesis of the paper that people recall more words that are semantically processed as compared to words that are acoustically processed. This is clearly seen in the results of the experiment conducted with the 20 participants. Clearly, the manner in which participants’ process words have an effect on their memory and this applies to both the semantically and acoustically processed words. When participants process words semantically, they recall more words. On the other hand, when participants process words acoustically they recall a few words. This means semantic processing of words has a heavy bearing on memory. Despite the fact that the study used an opportunity sampling, the results represent a concrete result because people process, acoustically and semantically, words similarly irrespective of the place they occupy. Therefore, despite the fact that the sampling method is quick and practical, it can be used to generalize the results. The results of this study relate to the level of processing theory developed by Craig and Lockhart in 1972 (cited in Rice et al 2000). This theory focuses on the processes that are involved in memory; that is, semantic and acoustic processing. The theory explains that memory is what occurs as a function of processing information and that there is an unclear distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory. This theory is supported by a study Craig & Tulving conducted in 1975 and found out that semantic processing provided the best and effective recall (Cited in Rice et al 2000). This is the same finding that the results of this study show and thus support Craig & Lockhart’s theory. The limitation of this study is that, finding out whether some participants had mental defects that affect memory or whether all participants were mentally healthy was difficult, yet this is an important factor that can influence the outcome of the study. An interesting finding from the experiment is that the word ‘House’ that was to be acoustically processed, was recalled the most times even more than any other semantically processed word. The total number of time it was recalled was 10. This presents an opening for future research to find out whether the recall of certain words or words that denote certain things does not depend on processing. The findings of this study can be used in other researches that study memory or word processing and in understanding of how the brain works and maybe help in detecting mental defects that affect word processing and recall. Bibliography Bartlett, J. C. and Tulving, E. (1974) Effects of temporal and semantic encoding in immediate recall upon subsequent retrieval. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(3), 297-309 Gross R (2010) The science of mind and behaviour (6th ed). London: Hodder Education Rice D, Haralambos M, Jones S, Foreman N and Askam W (2000) Psychology in focus AS Level Lancs: Causeway Press Limited Read More