The Development of Dignity from Infancy to Old Age - Research Paper Example

?Self-esteem On investigation of the term “self-esteem” one discovers that it appears to be a wild horse which no researcher or practitioner has everbeen able to tame. This idea of an untamed self-esteem is ludicrous given that Guindon (2010) identifies self-esteem as affecting one’s “motivation, functional behavior, and life satisfaction, and is significantly related o well being throughout life” (p. 3). This paper joins in the plethora of writers and attempts to define self-esteem as a trait and follows its development throughout the lifespan of individuals. Researchers and practitioners in their attempt to define self-esteem have unearthed a number of components to this one trait. Some researchers have even identified several concepts of self-esteem as a collective self-esteem, contingent self-esteem, implicit self-esteem and explicit self-esteem. Greenberg as cited in Guindon (2010) even classifies self esteem as “a basic human need” (p. 3). Nonetheless, Guindon (2010) and several other writers all agree that self-esteem is first and foremost a construct. Wells and Marwell as cited in Guindon (2010) have presented a categorization of self-esteem which still stands today(p. 5).They have classified the construct from four different perspectives, namely, object/attitudinal approach, the relational approach, psychological responses approach and function/component approach. The object/attitudinal approach refers to the self as “an object just like any other thing” therefore we are able to “have reactions toward ourselves, in this case toward that part of self we call self-esteem” (p. 5). The relational approach addresses the reactional dimension of self-esteem as well as “the relationship or difference between sets of attitudes” (p. 5). For this reason Guindon (2010) notes that we can have varying feelings about ourselves when we compare “our ideal self with our real self” (p. 5). Psychological responses approach refers to the “psychological or emotional reactions” one has towards oneself (p. 5). For example, we can have affirmative or depressing feelings about different parts of ourselves. Finally, the function/component approach refers to self-esteem as a part of personality which is a construct in itself. As a part of personality self-esteem is directly connected to “motivation and self-regulation” (p. 5). Therefore self-esteem is involved in how we interact with the principles and values as stipulated by society. In spite of the plethora of definitions, several authors construe the majority of the definitions of self esteem, there are two essential commonalities, namely, “evaluation and its emotional experience or affect” (p. 5). Added to these two elements are Smelser’s as cited in Guindon (2010) “cognitive, affective and evaluative elements”. Today, these elements still hold as the “universally accepted components of self esteem” (p. 5). Koch as cited in Guindon (2010) warns that “the popular definition of self-esteem may not match the psychological definition of self” (4). Thus, in light of the various definitions and elements of self-esteem it is imperative that practitioners be accurate in their analysis of an individual’s self-esteem or wrong interventions may be implemented which may cause more harm than good to the individual’s self-esteem. Given this understanding of the difficulty of defining self-esteem, the author of this paper has chosen the definition put forward by Guindon (2010) since she appears to have encapsulated all of these elements in the research and defined self-esteem as “the attitudinal evaluative component of the self; the affective judgments placed on the self-concept consisting of feelings of worth and acceptance which are developed and maintained as a consequence of awareness of competence and feedback from the external world” (p. 12). Further, Guindon makes the assumption that self esteem could be considered a system comprising “a global component and a selective component” which she defined in one of her earlier works as: Global self-esteem: An overall estimate of general self-worth; a level of self-acceptance or respect for oneself; a trait or tendency relatively stable and enduring, composed of all subordinate traits and characteristics within self. Selective self-esteem: An evaluation of specific and constituent traits or qualities within the self, at times situationally variable and transitory, that tare weighted and combined into an overall evaluation of self, or global self esteem. (p.14) Based on the above definition one can assume that every individual has some level of self-esteem. An individual’s self-esteem can range from high to medium or low, or defensive (Guindon 2010, p. 17). The literature suggests that individuals with low self-esteem are sensitive and highly critical of themselves. They experience “severe emotional reactions to failure” and have “low interpersonal confidence” (p. 17). Whereas individuals with low self-esteem are pessimistic and entertain negative thoughts, the individual with high self-esteem are optimistic and “confident in the accuracy of their perceptions and judgments”( Guindon 2010, p. 17). They perform better in their workplace, are disposed to better physical health and unlike their low counterparts who are prone to depression they enjoy more “pleasant feelings” (Guindon 2010, p. 17). For Guindon the major difference in the two extremes (high and low) is their “motives for personal growth and improvement” while the individual with high self-esteem may desire personal growth, those with low self-esteem try to shield themselves. Their focus instead of growth is on avoiding error. Thus their attitude is one of self-protection unlike individuals with high self-esteem who thrive on self-enhancement (Guindon 2010). How can such a vast phenomenon be measured? Researchers and practitioners alike measure self-esteem through the use of various instruments, evaluation by others, observations of behavior, and interviews. Guindon in one of her numerous research requested descriptors from educators to connote high or low self esteem children, the top five for high self-esteem were “confident friendly, happy, positive, motivated”(p. 19) and the top five for low self-esteem were “withdrawn/shy/quiet, insecure, underachieving, negative attitude, unhappy” (p. 20). Development of the Trait in Infancy Although authors have written about infants’ self esteem developing positively based on the attention given to them by caregivers and preschoolers’ self-esteem may be affected negatively by overdependence on caregivers (Fiorentino, 2005), it is interesting to note that the author of this paper has been unable to find evidence of measurement of self esteem in children under six. In fact, Davies and Brember, (1999) advocate that self-esteem can be identified in children from as early as the age of 8 but Guindon (2010) insists that “Between the ages of 5 and 8, self-esteem becomes increasingly defined” (p.46). Further, Guindon believes that it is at this stage when children begin to develop their sense of self worth in relation to their “physical appearance, social acceptance, scholastic ability, athletic and artistic skills and behavior, parent relationships, and peer relationships” (p. 47). Development of the Trait in Childhood Several researchers have alluded to self-esteem in childhood. Robin et al. (2002) in their analysis of the research on self-esteem in children noted that children on examination of this trait would overestimate their opinions about themselves and therefore initially appear to have high self-esteem but this declines later in childhood. They note that children’s global self-esteem declines as well. In addition, Robin et al. (2002) suggest that self-esteem in childhood is usually high but especially for girls it declines during adolescence. Further, they argue that younger children may exaggerate self-esteem due to the positive feedback they receive from their significant others but as they progress through life the feedback becomes more negative consequently eroding their formerly high self esteem. Development of the Trait in Adolescence Particularly, due to maturational factors, the declining childhood self-esteem continues to deteriorate in adolescence (Robin et al., 2002). Several studies have tended to analyze the “transition” from childhood to adolescence. Coopersmith, as cited in Guindon (2010) that the development of self-esteem in presecondary school children is “a complex phenomenon consisting of self evaluation and manifestations of defensive reactions to that evaluation” (p. 9). For Coopersmith self-esteem is a judgmental process in which “performance, capacities and attribute are examined according to personal standards and values that developed during childhood… individuals learn their worth initially from their parents, which is reinforced by others” (p. 9). This idea reinforces Robin et al.’s theory about the feedback from parents strongly influences the development of the child’s self esteem. Contrary to Robin et al.’s findings on the transition period, Leung and Choi (2010) note that during the transition period, “peer relationships have been identified as a context for the development of self esteem” (p. 23). Thus, acceptance by peers during early adolescence implies positive self-esteem which led Leung and Choi (2010) to conclude that peer relationships is positively related to the development of a healthy self-esteem. A second controversial factor which researchers discovered influences the development of self-esteem in adolescence is involvement in music. Darrow, Novak and Swedberg (2011) concluded that self-esteem improves with music intervention yet other researchers deny any positive improvement in self-esteem due to music (p. 6). Development of the Trait in Adulthood The author of this paper noted like Robin et al.(2002) the limited availability of studies on self esteem in adulthood. Adults with a “healthy self-esteem” do not allow other people to dictate their pace or define who they are (Guindon 2005, p. 37). “People develop self-esteem early in life…they learn during the normal developmental processes of childhood and adolescence about their competence through their achievements and about their worth as human beings from the validation of theirs” (Guindon 2005, p. 35). Nonetheless, the general consensus has been that global self esteem progresses slowly in adulthood (Robin et al. p.424) and reaches a peak during late midlife (p.430). This peak has been attributed to the level and quality of activity with which the healthy adult engages. Regrettably, once a peak has been achieved a decline will follow. Consequently, certain authors view the next stage in life as a time of low self-esteem. Development of the Trait in Old Age The study of self esteem among older adults appears to be a dynamic process. The findings are inconsistent across the literature. When comparing adulthood and old age it was concluded (though not consistently) that older adults are prone to lower self esteem than their younger counter parts. Particularly, the older female gender has slightly lower self esteem than those that are a decade younger. Nevertheless, although Robin et al. (2002) proposes that self-esteem increases steadily throughout one’s adulthood, and then declines severely in old age, their work expounded on possible reasons for a decline as well as reasons for an increase in self-esteem in old age. No finding has yet conclusively demonstrated a completely positive or negative development of self-esteem in old age. Contributions of Nature and Nurture to the Development of the Trait The general consensus suggests that all traits inclusive of self esteem are largely hereditary. Yet these same traits are also influenced by nature, in particular the environment in which they exist. Guindon (2006) on the other hand, refuted these beliefs in her discourse on the capacity of the individual to change levels of self-esteem. Guindon claimed given that self –esteem is more influenced by nature that nurture that both clients and clinicians may find it challenging to change a low self –esteem since self-esteem “may be inherited” (p.28). Nonetheless, Guindon agreed that both nature and nurture have a “substantial” influence on the development of self-esteem. She concluded that the ability for the level of self-esteem to change in an individual depends on whether self-esteem is considered a “general trait” then there is likely to be little change over time. Conclusion Self-esteem appears to be a dynamic phenomenon with researchers identifying it as a construct, a basic need and essential to the overall well-being of the individual. Nonetheless, the author of this paper construed self-esteem as a construct which is necessary throughout one’s lifespan. Although several authors believe that infants have self-esteem, the general consensus is that it is not adequately developed at this stage and as they progress through their experiences later in childhood this immature conception of self is adjusted due to the interaction of significant others. Thus, the question arises, is self-esteem a product of the responses of others alone? The nature versus nurture debate rages intensely on this question of the development of self-esteem. Nevertheless, researchers have agreed that it is definitely a case of both genetics and one’s environment. Although nature may present the infant with a somewhat obscure sense of self it is the functioning of nurture to bring this understanding of self to fruition. Hence, the young child moves from an over exaggerated high self-esteem to perhaps a healthy or low self-esteem in childhood. Researchers believe that there is generally a decline from the artificially high to a more realistic level. Nonetheless, there is a decline and this may continue into adolescence with the self-esteem of girls becoming lower than boys. Counter to this decline, recent researchers insist that there are certain factors which contribute to a healthy self-esteem. Leung and Choi (2010) believe that self-esteem can begin an upward climb if peer relationships are positive. Likewise, Darrow, Novak and Swedberg (2011) argue for the intervention of the study of music as a means of improving an adolescent’s self-esteem. Guindon (2006) notes that self-esteem is vital to the overall well being of the individual because if this trait is not vibrantly active within the individual particularly in the adolescent period the adult will feel a sense of lack perhaps underperforming in academics and other areas socially accepted standards. The adult gradually increases self-esteem until perhaps old age where researchers argue about the continued increase or drastic decline in this trait. Robin and Trzesniewski (2006) propose that the fluctuations in self-esteem during one’s lifetime may be a result of changes not only in their environment but “maturational changes such as puberty and cognitive decline in old age” as well (p. 36). Whilst analysis of the development of self-esteem gives one author changes from high to low or differences in boys and girls, others have found self-esteem to be a stable construct. Researchers and clinicians alike appear to have tremendous difficulty with this trait from its definition to its ability to change to strategies to improve its existence in an individual. This challenge with the construct self-esteem perhaps stems from the major limitation of all the studies on self-esteem thus far - the use of self reports to verify the existence and to measure the level of one’s self esteem. The present cohorts of researchers and clinicians are in dire straits at this time to develop instruments which would improve on the limitations of the past. The saga continues with raging debate over self-esteem. It is hoped that the powers that be would realize the significance of the development of this trait for the well being of our lives and put resources towards its development and therefore possible solutions to the overall understanding of self-esteem. References Darrow A., Novak J.& Swedberg O., Horton S., & Rice B. (2009). The effect of participation in a Music Mentorship Program on the self esteem and attitudes of at-risk students. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2009 (2), 5-16. Davies, J. & Brember, I (1999). Reading and mathematics attainments and self-esteem in years 2 and 6-an eight year study. Educational Studies , 25 (2), 145-158. Fiorentino, L. (2005). Family Front and Centre A support resource promoting healthy child development. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/hp-ps/dca-dea/publications/ffc-ief/pdf/ffc_self_esteem.pdf Guindon, M. (2010). Self-esteem across the lifespan. New York: Routledge. Leung, C. & Choi, E. (2010). A Qualitative Study of self-esteem, peer affiliation, and academic outcome among low achieving students in Hong Kong. New Horizons in Education, 58(1), 22-42. Lipnevich, A. &. (2007). Self-esteem among adult literacy learners. Adult Basic Education & Literacy Journal , 1 (2), 73-82. Robins R., Trzesniewski K., Tracy J. , Gosling S. & Potter J. (2002). Global self-esteem across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 17(3), 423-434. Read More