Development and Factors that Facilitate Development Factors throughout the Lifespan - Assignment Example

Lifespan Development: Impeding and Facilitating Factors Describe and discuss factors that impede development and factors that facilitate development factors throughout the lifespan (at infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and old age), referencing theories, and theorists studied in class. Introduction Lifespan development is the study of the changes that a human being undergoes mentally, physically, and socially as they gradually grow from infancy up to their last stage of old age. Concisely, it is the study of the human lifespan. The development of an individual relies on several factors around them that greatly determine the outcome at the end of a developmental stage. There are some factors that impede, and other that facilitate the development of one’s lifespan, as this essay will bring out. There are several theories that try to explain the hierarchy up the development cycle. The theorists define what they make out of the causes and implications of lack and the availability of several aspects of an individual’s life. To understand the limiting and facilitating factors of development, it is important to go into detail of what the theories state: 1) Piaget’s developmental stages theory defines the gradual acquisition, construction, and use of intelligence by the human brain. He argues that cognitive development is a progressive re-organization of mental processes resulting from environmental experiences and biological maturation. The human brain uses assimilation when it faces unfamiliar information where it uses previously acquired knowledge to understand it. 2) Kohlberg’s theory tries to explain the stages of moral development. It states that moral reasoning has six stages with each preceding stage more adequate at tackling moral dilemmas than its predecessor. 3) Erikson’s psychosocial development theory explains eight stages of development that a normal human undergoes from infancy through late adulthood. In his theory, he explains that a person confronts and masters new challenges at each stage whose completion relies greatly on the previous stage. For instance, if one enters the toddler stage with trust, the virtue of hope is what they carry into the following stages of life. 4) The Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory explains human learning as a social process, claiming that social interaction is paramount in cognitive development. According to him, everything has two learning levels: individual (intrapsychological) level, and social (interpsychological) level. In an example, Vygotsky uses a model of zones to explain. A student for instance has some understanding of things, but still requires a tutor’s assistance and social interaction to help him develop fully. Impeding Factors Prenatal stages From the moment a child in conceived, its development greatly depends on the mother’s lifestyle. A developing fetus requires the necessary conditions and nutrients to develop into a normal baby that is healthy. If a mother is malnourished, the fetus lacks these nutrients and might incur irreversible damages to it, or even lead to its miscarriage. If the mother is a drug user, she is likely to harm the fetus more: the fetus under develops, comes out prematurely or with low birth weight, and worse still, is likely to have lifelong disorders. In addition, many children die at birth owing to improper and inadequate pre-natal care given to expectant mothers. In some cases, the fetus might have genetic disorders that contribute to abnormalities that either affect its normal life in and out of the womb, or kill it before it is born (Smith, 2007). Infancy stage The lack of bonding or a caregiver that an infant can look up to, lean on, and trust affects them in a big way. If they lack love and a trustworthy bond, infants tend to adapt to not having their cries heard or needs met and are unlikely to form healthy relationships with others, and generally display slow cognitive gains. Malnutrition exposes an infant to lack of metabolic and brain development energy. A normal infant should double their weight in four months and malnutrition will not only deny them this but will also make them lose interest in their surroundings, they become irritable, avoid eye-to-eye contact and might fail to, or experience delay in sitting up, talking, and walking. Lack of brain stimulation such as exposure to positive surroundings that allow them to recognize, understand, and ape speech will largely limit an infant’s learning capacity. If their exposure to new experience that stimulate brain curiosity is not positive and regular, the infant’s brain remains weak and develops rather slowly, or remains dormant. In conclusion, there is the factor of physical disorders such as an ailment. These factors interfere largely with their body functioning resulting in a condition called ‘failure to thrive’ that includes below normal height, head size, and weight. In addition, the infant is slow in acquiring skills such as sitting up, rolling over, and standing. They might also acquire mental and disorders, excessive crying and irritability (Peck, 2013). The lack of sleep denies the infant normal growth and development in that the brain does not get the time to process the information that it collects when the infant is awake. The lack of sleep results in less than normal height and weight in infants (Martinez, 2013). Toddler, Preschool stage Lack of bonding and parental interaction translates to neglect and it denies the child a healthy development. Exposing the child to poor or underprivileged environments (mostly educational) places the child at risk of underdevelopment in terms of speech, behavior, and motor skills. Isolating a child from social environments might cause development issues such as improper speech and inability to bond with others. Improper nutrition gives rise to health disorders thus affecting a child’s physique in terms of stunted growth. Unhealthy eating leads to disorders such as obesity (Eitel, 2010). Middle childhood Malnutrition and disease threaten the physical development of children in this age bracket. In addition, the children at this stage of life experience great risks of unintentional injuries or fatalities such as drowning. Lack of public education denies children the ability to communicate their thoughts, embrace social expectations, sharpen their motor skills, and inability to solve problems. Lack of simulation hinders brain development thus learning disabilities, abnormal behavior, and dropping out of school become potential outcomes (Charlesworth & Viggiani, 2007). Adolescence Biological factors greatly affect the development of adolescents in that once their bodies start changing; they might turn to ambivalence thus poor body image, bad eating habits, and low esteem. Genetics affects greatly the development of adolescents in the sense that some will experience the effects of puberty before others, and different signs of maturity vary from one person to the other. Lack of bonding, meeting of their needs, and moral support affects the social abilities and psychology of adolescents in that they might shun away from their peers and sink into stress and depression, or perform poorly. According to Steinberg (2010), malnourished and unhealthy individuals experience a delay in the onset of puberty. Young, Middle adulthood Socialization issues such as discrimination in the workplace can cause constraints to a young adult’s life and interfere with their decision-making, or impose psychological trauma. Biology as well can kill a young adult’s dream. For instance, if one discovers that they are underweight and cannot join the army. Age might delay the branding of one as an adult in some instances like drinking and driving regulations that vary between 16 to 18 years of age. Some cultures also determine at what instance one acquires adult status, for instance the culture coming-of-age rituals. In some societies, one cannot become an adult if they are not self-sufficient, cannot make their own decisions, or take responsibility for their doings. Health disorder is also a great barrier to development in that an ill adult cannot perform duties, might limit their socialization, and disable various other aspects of adulthood. Infertility will also deny one the capacity to gain parent status (Steinberg, 2010). Old age Retirement and other factors associated with finances determine the lifestyle of the aged. It affects the social aspect, one’s sense of worth, self-esteem, and security. According to Center for Addiction and Mental Health (2011), if an older person feels he was once wealthy and independent, he is likely to have less health problems. Social aspect such as divorce or bereavement is likely to cause a medical or psychological disorder in older people. In addition, most experience isolation by close relatives, leading to depression thus stigma and risk of health or psychic problems. Health problems however form the biggest barrier to this bracket that has varieties of illnesses such as Dementia, Alzheimer’s’ disease, asthma and other diseases that associate with old age. Facilitating Factors Good nutrition Good nutrition facilitates the development of one’s lifespan right from fetal stage. Proper nutrition prevents the alteration of endocrine status and fetal nutrition that leads to variation in fetal structure that predisposes the life to metabolic, cardiovascular, and endocrine diseases in adult life. Overnutrition and undernutrition also contributes to stunted fetal growth. When it comes to babies, it is important in that they grow most in their early stages in life. Setting health eating habits sets a healthy background for a healthy development. In older stages of life, the body requires constant replenishment of energy to enable the execution of day-to-day duties and nutrients to facilitate development (Prakash, 2012). Stimulation and interaction This aspect is important mostly in the infant stage of life in that it is important in their cognitive and emotional development as they learn to demonstrate emotion, build vocabulary, and make crucial connections. By challenging the brain, it capacitates learning and acquisition of problem-solving skills (Prakash, 2012). Positive environment Environment here refers to the total simulations, both psychological and physical, that an individual receives from conception. The physical environment comprises of animate and in-animate subjects whose manipulation provides basic necessities, in addition to geographical conditions such as weather that impact significantly as well. Social environment comprises of societies and individuals, laws, and customs regulating human behavior. Then there is the psychological environment that defines an individual’s reaction to something (Prakash, 2012). Heredity and genetics These determine the social and physical characteristics of an offspring that comprises of a donation from the sperm cell and an egg cell during fertilization. Genetics determine the growth and development in terms of height, body structure, intelligence, wit, and aptitudes amongst others (Prakash, 2012). Learning and reinforcement Learning translates to maturation, a critical aspect of development, without which the human body is as good as a log. Learning develops the mental, physical, intellectual, social, emotional, and attitudinal developments. Reinforcement is actual activity, important in the sense that one learns by doing. By repeating an activity, the brain is accustomed to the act, and stores it for later reference (Prakash, 2012). References Center for Addiction and Mental Health. (2011). What factors influence the mental health and social well-being of older people?. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://knowledgex.camh.net/policy_health/mhpromotion/mhp_older_adults/Pages/factors_mh_wellbeing.aspx Charlesworth L., Wood J. & Viggiani P. (31 August 2007). Middle childhood. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/16297_Chapter_5.pdf Eitel J. (24 August 2010). Factors Affecting Early Childhood Development. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://www.livestrong.com/article/217996-factors-affecting-early-child-development/ Martinez E. (2013). What Factors Affect the Normal Growth And Development of A Toddler?. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://preschooler.thebump.com/factors-affect-normal-growth-development-toddler-3263.html Peck A. (2013). The Factors Which Can Negatively Impact an Infant’s Development. 2013. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/factors-can-negatively-impact-infants-development-2562.html Prakash J. (2012). 8 factors that influence growth and development of an organism. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://www.preservearticles.com/201105206837/factors-influencing-growth-and-development.html. Smith M. (21 Sept 2007). What factors contribute to the various areas of development of a child? Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://voices.yahoo.com/what-factors-contribute-various-areas-development-487563.html?cat=25 Steinberg, L. D. (2010). Life-span development. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth. 2. The nature - nurture controversy is a constantly recurring theme in developmental psychology. In an essay, discuss this issue, making sure that you cover the following points: (a) define the terms nature and nurture; (b) discuss the implications of taking a position on one side or the other; and (c) take a position on the issue and explain how you have arrived at this conclusion, citing developmental theories and theorists. Introduction The term nature and nature is a psychology term of the debate as to whether it is a person’s natural (innate) qualities or their personal experiences (nurture) that determine or cause significant differences in their behavior and physical traits. Nature in this case refers to inborn, thus inherited aspects that simply exist naturally regardless of environmental interference whereas nurture refers to aspects acquired after birth. Nativists support that personal traits and behaviors are inborn and empiricists oppose them, arguing that the mind is initially a blank slate that gradually fills up as one is encountering different stimuli in the course of their life therefore influencing their character and behavior. This essay will discuss the debate in detail, evaluating both sides of the motion plus what implications might apply in case one takes a stand on either side. Nature and nurture in Pre-natal development Conception marks the start of a human life. It begins as a biological process where the sperm and egg cells fuse to form a fertile egg that under normal conditions grows to infant stage where it lives outside its mother’s womb. The development of a fertilized egg of a fetus and finally a baby is wholly cell division, with each cell subdividing itself through biochemical processes to form organs that make up the infant. One external factor that may affect the growth of the embryo is a drug or substance use during pregnancy. Smoke, for instance has chemicals that contain compounds likely to interfere with the developing embryo or destroy it. In another scenario, a small exposure to some compounds such as ethanol can have chronic or long-term effects to the embryo even after birth in that it might develop the fetal alcohol syndrome that shows up as a malfunctioning nervous system in a growing child. It is therefore logic to conclude that in as much as nature has its own plan of combining genetic composition in the embryo to form a baby, the environmental factor can greatly determine the its future (Helix Foundation). Brain development at infantry According to Gable and Hunting (2013), the brain is very new and is still in the preparation stage in full operation at childbirth, as the neurons in it usually exist individually. The next three years from the period of tasks for the brain to reinforce cohesion between them that occurs as they exchange impulses between them to form synapses. A child produces more synapses that it needs and in the three years, the mostly used synapses become permanent parts of the brain whereas the less functional are eliminated. That is the only role that biology plays in the brain development. The rate of synapse use relies on the social and physical environment of the child. It is through the nurturing that babies learn about themselves, develop curiosity, creativity, and confidence. Nurturing includes proper nutrition, provision of positive stimulation, love, conversation and so on. If a child is born in tendency, it is likely to be impulsive, irritable, and insensitive to emotion towards others. If this child happens to lack proper attention or general nurture, its brain wires in directions that it may become aggressive and overly violent henceforth. Nurture is therefore not much of an innate thing, it therefore contradicts the Bowlby’s theory of attachment that suggests that the attachment between mother and child is innate. Nature and nurture in growth and development Nature, or heredity is a genetic code given to a child by the parents, and greatly determines the IQ, height, weight, behavior, and color amongst others. To support that nature determines these; scientists did an experiment, the Minnesota study, where a set of monozygotic twins was separated and raised in different environments and never met until they got to age forty. Surprisingly, they had similar personalities, temperament, social attitudes, occupational preferences, and leisure interests. After comparing these twins brought up in different environments with other twins brought up in the same environments, there was no significant difference. The conclusion is that nature determines, largely, the outcome of one’s development. However, other studies depict the effect of environment on the development and behavior of individuals. For instance, nutrition greatly affects the abilities of a person. For instance, a group of children was treated with vitamin and mineral supplements for a period of eight months and after that was given intelligence tests. The same intelligence test was given to another group that was not treated with the supplements and minerals and the scores compared. The observation was a better performance in the first lot. In a study to show how nurture affects or shapes behavior, an eleven month-old infant was put in a room with a white rat and whenever he was about to touch it, a terrible noise was rung. After the experiment, the child was discovered to display fear whenever he came into close contact with anything furry or white in color (Yahoovoices, 2005). All these studies show that it is impossible to tell which one between nature and nurture is the key determinant to an individual’s growth or development, as they seem to go head to head. The implications of taking a side on either nature or nature It is logical from the discussions that nature and nurture play roles in almost equal magnitude in any life. In the few instances that a party takes to one side, the consequence is usually negative. For instance, the American Eugenics Society’s move of the 1920’s that was pushing for sterilization of men and women in mental (psychiatric) centers. The move aimed at ‘eliminating the passing on of hereditary insanity or incurable chronic mania or dementia to coming generations. An almost similar era is the Vermont eugenic period of 1931 to 1941 in which the insane, criminals, rapists, and feeble-minds underwent sterilization to eliminate their kind in the society. This act however, went overboard as sterilization began to be exercised on socially ostracized and poor families arguing that they did not live within acceptable social or moral convention category of the American middle class (Kaelber, 2010). Even worse in intensity is the Nazi elimination camps where the state employed the “final solution” that saw mass killings of Jews whom it considered to be enemies and perpetrators. Most of those targeted were Democrats, homosexuals, Jehovah Witnesses, socialists, German communists, and “socially deviant” people. The aim was to eliminate them because their nature would never allow them to support the Hitler administration. By the end of the era, three million Jews had been killed (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2013). Such acts draw inspiration from the belief and leaning onto either side of the motion and are in today’s world an act of breaching of human rights. In contemporary application of biasing one side of the debate, one can use the example of a parent who believes that nature takes care of itself and apply this to say a newborn baby. Considering the part of nature in this case, the baby is alive, with all organs, can breathe, and perform like a normal human. However, the baby needs nurturing; attention, love, food, health to mention but a few. What happens if the parent withdraws all nurturing? For one, the parent goes against Piaget’s developmental stages theory defines the gradual acquisition, construction, and use of intelligence by the human brain that might prevent the child from acquiring full and normal use of the brain. If the baby lacks proper nutrition and health, it will not acquire normal height, weight and illness might even kill it. Conclusion In conclusion, the development of the human brain is a practical scenario where the nature-nurture correlation is interdependent on each other; the brain’s formation is as a process of cell division just like any other body organ. It depends solely on proteins and other genetically-related components. If there is no external influence, the result is a normal-working brain. However, what the outcome is likely saying if a harmful chemical like ethanol interferes with normal development? What effect does the mother’s nutrition, anxiety, or stress have on the fetal processes? The potential risk is a general brain malfunction, potential chronic disease acquisition, and even miscarriage if the exposure is extreme (Dowling, 2007). It is therefore important to understand the role of both nature and nurture in shaping the development and growth path of any organism before taking two sides. While in some cases nature seems to thrive much independently than nurture does, it gets to a point where the lack or availability of nature-nurture collaboration affects the outcome of a scenario. It therefore gets to a conclusion that nature cannot do without nurture, and nurture cannot do without nature. Furthermore, nature provides the grounds for nurturing, and nurturing itself determines the conditions that nature thrives in, with both having potential positive or negative consequences on the other. References Dowling, J. E. (2007). The great brain debate: Nature or nurture?. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. Gable S. & Hunting M. (2013). Nature, Nurture and Early Brain Development. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://extension.missouri.edu/p/GH6115 Helix Foundation. Nature Vs. Nurture. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://www.spiritcrow.com/helix/BiologyAndSociety/a10.htm Kaelber L. (2010). Eugenics: Compulsory Sterilization in 50 American States. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://www.uvm.edu/~lkaelber/eugenics/ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. (10 June 2013). Nazi Camps. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005144 Yahoovoices. (16 December 2005). The Childhood Development Nature vs Nurture Debate Continues. Retrieved on 5 November 2013 from http://voices.yahoo.com/the-childhood-development-nature-vs-nurture-debate-13176.html?cat=25 Read More