The Mind-Body Debate - Assignment Example

? History and Systems of Psychology History and Systems of Psychology a) The mind-body debate holds that the mind deals with thoughts, mental processes, as well as consciousness while the body focuses on the brain structure and the physical aspects of neurons in the brain. The mind-body debate relates to the philosophy of psychology in a number of ways. First, the debate strives to answer the questions whether the mind can be regarded as part of the body or whether it is the body that forms part of the brain. In the philosophy of psychology, the mind-body debate uncovers the relationship between the mind and body. Psychologically, having the freedom to make choices can be regarded as a mental phenomenon, which can lead to some physical behaviors. For example, thinking can lead to the movement of muscles in response to a certain thought (Friedenberg & Silverman, 2005). In the mind-body debate, behavioral psychologists are of the opinion that psychology should lay more emphasis on behavior that can be observed. To them, the interaction between the mind and the body should focus on both response and stimulus. For example, their belief is that there cannot be objective study of mind processes. In the mind-body debate, biological psychologists are of the opinion that the mind cannot be said to exist since it is not a physical structure. For example, they hold the belief that scientific research will prove that the brain and the mind are the same (Friedenberg & Silverman, 2005). b) The mind-body debate can be regarded as crucial since it forms the basis of philosophical beliefs about the functioning of the world. The mind-body debate also helps to understand the differences between the mind and the body, as they can be regarded as functionally distinct but separate entities. The debate also helps in the understanding that the physical and the mental world tends to operate differently (Friedenberg & Silverman, 2005). c) In contemporary psychology, the mind-body debate helps in studying cognition, especially in the field of cognitive psychology. Cognition entails the study of mental processes taking place in a person’s brain. In cognitive psychology and contemporary psychology, the mind-body debate strives to highlight the relationship between the mind and body. For example, perceptions, thoughts, memories, and experiences cannot be quantified since they take place in the mind. However, physical events taking place in the body can be quantified (Friedenberg & Silverman, 2005). #2 The belief by Descartes that the soul was perfectly rational, unified, consistent but limited in terms of its power over the physical body can be said to have some meaning. The argument by Descartes means that there exist a distinction between the body and mind. He termed this a “mind-body dualism”, which he used to differentiate between the body and the mind conclude about the nature of mind. Descartes meant that the mind can be differentiated from the body with regard to their nature. His argument means the mind is involved in thinking while the body is non-thinking; his argument also meant that the soul and the body can be separated. The belief by Descartes also means that the body tends to be dominant over the mind. As such, there must be an attachment of the mind to the body so as to ensure the existence of the minds (Wozniak, 1992). An example is that there cannot be the detection of the minds in the absence of the bodies. In addition, minds tend to exist within the body, and their functioning is mainly determined by the body. #3 a) Structuralism refers to a school of thought, which had the ultimate aim of identifying the structure, as well as the components making up the human mind. Structuralists held the belief that learning about the functions of the human brain should be through breaking down the brain into the basic elements, which make it up. Structuralism had the significance of helping to understand how the aspects of psychological experiences can be understood. The other significance was that the movement played a role in evaluating the nature of human experience. Structuralism can also be regarded as significant as it created an avenue for the rise of psychology as different field from philosophy. For example, the structuralism movement led to the development of Gestalt psychology, behaviorism, and functionalism. These new developments in psychology made immense contributions to experimental psychology (Sturrock, 2008). Structuralism has made immense contributions to the field of psychology. The movement can be regarded as one of the earliest psychological movements, and its development was mostly influenced by the ideas raised by Wilhelm Wundt who used to be a medical doctor in Germany. The contributions of this school of thought to the field of psychology can be seen in the interests of Wundt, which was mainly in the examination of feelings and thoughts, as well as introspection. Structuralism formed the basis for the understanding of the conscious mind through introspection. For example, it acts as a guide in the understanding of the elements, which make up consciousness, an examination of the organization of these elements, and an analysis of the correlation between physical events and mental experiences (Sturrock, 2008). #4 a) The arguments of Rene Descartes and William James can be said to have some similarities. First, Descartes believed that consciousness is based on a strong belief of “myself” no matter the deception that human beings experience. On his side, William James held the belief that personal consciousness cannot be shared between individuals. Secondly, William James believed that truth emanates from some of the ideas that people have. He contends that what is true comprises of the agreement between these ideas while what can be regarded as false is the falsification of these ideas. Similarly, Descartes argued that truth can be regarded as what people know and believe in according to their values. For example, they both argued that people tend to believe what they see as true and disregard what they see to be false (Wozniak, 1992). b) Both Descartes and William James have made immense contributions to contemporary psychology. Descartes contributed to the concept of mind, which formed a central theme of his argument. His contribution to contemporary psychology also centers on his efforts to link and establish relationships between body and mental processes. For example, his argument of the mind and body as separate entities forms the basis of his contribution to contemporary psychology. James’ contributions to modern psychology relate to his text entitled “The Principles of Psychology”, which still remains to be a crucial text in modern psychology. This text made psychology an internationally acclaimed discipline (Wozniak, 1992). #5 There exist several differences between the structuralism and the functionalism schools of thought. Structuralists hold the belief that psychology aims at identifying the main components, which make up consciousness. For example, structuralism identifies four elements involved in sensing taste; these include sour, sweet, bitter, and salty. Introspection entailed the main investigation method used in structuralism. On the contrary, functionalism holds the belief that psychology mainly aims at investigating the role of consciousness as opposed to investigating its structure. For example, functional psychologists use longitudinal research with the incorporation of testing, interviewing, and observing a person over a long period (Sturrock, 2008). # 6a. Associationism has made significant contributions to contemporary thinking in psychology and its principles are applicable to diverse mental processes. Some of the ideas of associationism anticipated behaviorist psychology, especially on the notion of conditioning. The theory is credited for giving rise to behaviorism. Association infers the theory that the mind comprises of elements mainly referred to as sensations and systematized ideas through diverse associations (Stenberg, 2009). Associationism is credited to Plato who established four laws of association in his analysis of the processes of remembrance and recall, namely: law of contiguity; law of frequency; law of similarity and, law of contrast. Early appeals to associationist principles incorporated the views of Locke (1690); Berkeley (1710); Hume (1739; 1748); and, Kant (1781). The natural laws of association were later refined to encompass law of resemblance, law of contiguity, and law of cause and effect (Stenberg, 2009). b. Associationism can be regarded as the starting point of cognitive psychology as it pioneered the presence of conscious and altruistic motives. The approach pair experiences to yield thought and learning. For instance, children decline touching fire owing to the association of the fire with pain, the pain emanating from experience (Stenberg, 2009). Associationism explores the manner in which experiences or ideas connect in the mind, thus yielding some form of learning. #7 a. Behaviourism maintains that individuals remain controlled by their environment. Behaviorists approach has had a significant influence on psychology. The approach is scientific, testable and easy to apply in explaining individual differences, explains the behavior by employing comprehensible principles, and possesses many varying practical applications (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2009). One of the outstanding strengths of the behaviorist approach is that the theory highlights behavior that can be readily observed and manipulated. The approach is applicable to behavioral therapy, behavior-modification, aversion therapy, remedying to phobias, addiction, and aggression. Behaviorist approach manifests several weaknesses as it disregards consciousness, ignores biology, and subjective experiences and emotions. Similarly, behaviorists approach is reductionist, too deterministic (negligible freewill) and downplays the role of innate factors. Critics’ dispute the assertions that human behaviors are mechanical and purely the product of stimulus-response behaviors. The approach largely underestimates the intricacy of human beings thought processes (cognition) and emotions. Similarly, much of the principles of behaviorism have been carried on animals; hence, such findings may not apply entirely in human behavior (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2009). Finally, ethical questions have been advanced regarding some of the behavioral treatment employed devoid of the consent of the client as is the case of aversion therapy where pain and discomfort are intentionally employed to alter the behavior of the client. # 8a. The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, as well as the significance of early childhood experiences. Behavior psychology, on the other hand, stresses the role of past learning experiences in shaping behavior. Behavior psychology largely does not focus on mental processes due to the assertion that mental processes remain largely complicated to observe and measure objectively (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). The core similarity between the two approaches is that they are both deterministic grounded in the premise that something, other than the organism is squarely responsible for the behavior. Behaviorists perceive humans as being controlled by their environments and strongly refute the ideas of free will and internal, unconscious drives. Psychoanalysts, on the other hand, assert humans are directed by their unconscious drives (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). Psychoanalytic approach dismisses the notions of free will and environmental influence on behavior. Behaviorists mainly view human nature as neither altruistic nor evil. Psychoanalytic approach, on the other hand, perceives humans as inherently selfish, self-centered, and egocentric by nature. b. Behavior psychology has been at the heart of behavior analysis and has contributed significantly in the understanding of why people do what they do. Behavior psychology does not dispute cognition, but assert that behavior can be predicted based on antecedent events, irrespective of anything invisible that might be happening. # 9 a. Gestalt therapy infers process psychotherapy with an objective of enhancing one’s contact within the community and with the environment. This objective is attained through an aware, spontaneous, and authentic dialogue between the client and the therapist. Field theory, on the other hand, forms the scientific world view that underscores the Gestalt phenomenological perspective. Field theory encompasses a method of exploring that illustrates the whole field of which the episode is presently a part, rather than examining the event with regard to the class to which it belongs (Woldt & Toman, 2005). The two approaches manifest similarities such as reliance on the immediate experience, here and now; a pursuit for insight into the intrinsic structure of the segregated whole which shapes the experiential field of perception; organized experimentation to attain a depiction true to the structure of the phenomena being studied; pursuing insight into the responsiveness process itself; and, intentionality (Woldt & Toman, 2005). b. In Gestalt therapy, the client and the therapist work collectively, to realize more concerning the client (Woldt & Toman, 2005). Gestalt therapy spotlights more on the process (the happenings) rather than the content (the discussions). According to the field theory approach, no action is isolated, but rather what possess an effect must influence that which is the influence in time and space. Field approaches are usually descriptive rather than speculative, interpretive, or classificatory. # 10 a. Neopsychoanalytic theory significantly recasts and broadens psychoanalytic theory by de- emphasizing the centrality of sexuality and de-emphasizing the significance of the unconscious. Neopsychoanalytic theory prominently highlights the role of the ego (Cohen, 2006). Some of the neopsychoanalytic theorists focus on the operation of the ego while others spotlight ego interaction with individual, culture, or the society at large. Psychoanalytic and neopsychoanalytic theories share a number of attributes such as psychodynamic conflict, interests in the manifestation of physical “symptoms” devoid of physical causes; the two approaches stipulate that unconscious mental processes were considerably influential on personality development (Cohen, 2006). Neopsychoanalytics believe that Freud failed to give adequate attention to the ego. Neo psychoanalytic theorists share opposition to two essential points: Freud’s stress on instinct as the principal motivators of human behavior, plus Freud’s deterministic view of personality. The psychodynamic framework perceives ego functioning to be a critical component (Cohen, 2006). Freud believed that the central role of the ego was to reconcile the id, superego, and external reality. However, Ego psychologists diverge from Freud by asserting that the ego is engaged in adaptation and that ego features at birth. Freud advanced that sex and aggression inspired all behavior while neopsychoanalytic assert that a sense of inferiority and a lifetime of compensation motivate all behavior. # 11a. Both humanistic and existential psychology asserts that human beings are fully conscious of self with a capability for intentionality, and the need to make choices. Thus, individuals must confront the paradoxes that their lives deliver. Hence, individuals have the duty to confront their potentialities for love, intentionality, freedom and destiny, courage and creativity (Hergenhahn, 2009). Humanists assert that all individuals should strive to be fully functioning by manifesting qualities such as reception to experience, freedom, creativity, and organismic trusting. Existentialism, on the other hand, infers a philosophical outlook that highlights the significance of free will, liberty of choice, and personal responsibility (Hergenhahn, 2009). Existentialism is popular for asserting that life is hard whereby the physical world can yield both pain and pleasure. Existentialists also assert that the social world can orchestrate misfortune and isolation, at the same time love and affection; and that the personal world features anxiety and guilt and that these episodes are not simply possibilities in life, but, are unavoidable. b. As the two quotes entail, resolving the dissonance requires changing of perception. As the quotes highlights, individuals should accept reality in an act of self-affirmation, via engagement, compassion, and commitment. For instance, in psychotherapy, Individuals are urged to employ anxiety to derive positive life changes. As the quotes infer, individuals should not repress anxiety, but rather should employ it constructively to alter undesirable situations in their life. #12a. Classical psychology and contemporary psychology share methodology. Some of the contemporary and classical psychology employs observation of the individual or animals in their natural environments as framework. For instance, functionalism that highlights the functions or role played by mental processes in enabling individuals to adapt to their environment employed observation of subjects in their natural environment (Jarvis, 2004). Classical theories of psychology were largely faulty since their conclusions were not grounded in sound scientific method. For instance, Wundt’s study of human consciousness has over the years lost appeal, especially on the process of introspection that is viewed as unreliable and unscientific. Although, classical psychology articles are regarded to be of historical interest, they do not aid to advance knowledge at either the level of research or application. Classical psychology assertions were largely speculative and non-empirically based (Jarvis, 2004). The highlights of individual differences now incorporates the study of intelligence, cognition, personality, and motivation, which have been central in applied fields of education, health, work, and sports, among other human settings and contexts. b. Despite the differences, the impact Classical psychology on psychology is unquestionable and has been critical in influencing later psychologists and psychology theories dwelling on human thought and behavior. Contemporary psychology, such as behaviorism, involves conducting of sound research on a certain attributes such as learning, through controlled laboratory conditions (Jarvis, 2004). References Cohen, D. (2006). Developmental psychopathology, theory, and method. New Jersey, NJ: John Willey & Sons. Friedenberg, J. & Silverman, G. (2005). Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind. London: SAGE. Hergenhahn, R. (2009). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Jarvis, M. (2004). Psychodynamic psychology: Classical theory and contemporary research. London, UK: Thomson. Shaffer, D. & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescent. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Stenberg, R. (2009). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Sturrock, J. (2008). Structuralism: With an Introduction by Jean-Michel Rabate. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Wozniak, R. H. (1992). Mind and body: Rene Descartes to William James. Washington, D. C.: National Library of Medicine. Weiten, W., Dunn, D. & Hammer, Y. (2009). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in the 21st Century. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Woldt, A. & Toman, S. (2005). Gestalt therapy: History, theory, and practice. London, Sage. Read More