Mothers of Suicide Sons - Research Paper Example

 Mothers of Suicide Sons Introduction This study reviews the effects of African American male suicides on their mothers, as well as the protective factors that the women employ to get through what is a trying and difficult period. The study provides a literature review of studies, into African American women dealing with the effects of suicide by their sons and critiques the underlying assumptions that have brought difficultly to these women to deal openly with their problem. According to the literature review, most of the women have focused on the belief that they need to stay strong and portray strength during their grieving period. The paper also discusses the methodology that was employed, in the study, to come up with the results, as well as giving the writer’s views on what he thinks were the limitations and strengths of the study. Literature Review Historically, African Americans have a lower rate of suicide attempts than their Caucasian counterparts do. A report released by the CDC in the year 2000 showed that suicide rates among African American males were 5.8 per 100,000 (Green, 2012). While African American women attempt more suicides, the completion of suicide is more likely in men. In researching suicide among this group, it is important to view it via a cultural and socio-historic manner. With reference to oppression suffered by African Americans throughout history, they tend to downplay suicidal thinking and depressive symptoms. Early socialization experiences that African Americans go through prepare them for confrontation with various challenges arising from the country’s racialised history. Strength is usually invoked in these experiences as a way for them to cope with these challenges. Suicide, therefore, is in opposition to the notion captured by this strength. Strength, in this context, means limitless endurance of hardship. African American women have learned to portray a facade of “keeping the family together” and, as such, the insinuation that her son or younger brother’s life was unbearable is hurting. Their characterization as nurturers implies that they are expected to be partially responsible for the decisions of their children. Suicide challenges this notion by hinting at deeply unmet needs (Green, 2012). A study was conducted to examine the current suicide rates among African American males as a sort of erosion over three centuries of individual self-preservation and communal strength (Poussaint & Alexander, 2000). It was discovered that most women view suicide as an attempt by the young male to find respite or rest. In a culture, where women utilize the SBW paradigm of invulnerability and feigning control, dealing with these suicides has profound effects on their psychological life. While the current psychological literature researching suicides among African Americans is far and between, literatures on the psychology of African American women concerning suicide are even more scant (Blazer et al, 1994). However, some studies have attempted to examine protective and risk factors for suicide among young black males with maternal influence. In another study while examining suicidal tendencies and ideations among African American, males from single mother families with cocaine addictions came up with several factors including poor psychological wellbeing, substance abuse, hopelessness, and low self-esteem. Researchers found that, African American women with suicidal tendencies have children with low self-esteem, mental health disorders, emotional or sexual abuse, and low levels of social support (Klein et al, 2006). In the process geared towards finding a reason for the lower rates of major psychological effects of suicide on African American women, some researchers began investigations into protective factors present to protect this population from adverse effects of suicide by males under their care. In a literature review on the correlation between protective factors and depression caused by suicide, it was identified that coping, effectively, is a buffer protecting African American women from outwardly showing depression from the suicides (Marion & Range, 2003). The researcher’s specifically cited unacceptability of suicide, religiosity, and extended family support as the variables that influenced decreased suicide caused depression among African American women. Women with greater support from family were less likely to suffer adverse depression caused by successful suicide attempts by African American males. Those who took suicide as an affront to their role as nurturer also showed a greater tendency to be idealistic (DeFrancisco & Chatham-Carpenter, 2000). Although these studies have studied effects of suicide by sons on African American women, and heave demonstrated links between suicide and depression, they do not factor in unique factors that may impact African American women and their reaction top losing a son through suicide (Poussaint & Alexander, 2000). The SBW paradigm shows a familiar culturally relevant and informed, as well as a familiar coping style for women of African American origin. Quantitative studies of the SBW paradigm suggest there is a relationship to psychological functioning, and psychological symptom management or coping (Hammack et al, 2004). Strong black women as the ones who could shut down to their experience internally and/ or seldom ask for any support, nor receive any social support they may need. The act of being divorced from their needs could cause a delay in grief treatment, which may further cause the problem to become worse. Divorcing themselves from their feelings causes them to ignore warning signs such as depression and interpersonal stress. Researchers to manage depression, arising from suicide, on women, can use the SBW paradigm (Romero, 2000). The experience of death is fundamentally different from that of the white woman for African Americans (Folkman & Lazarus, 1996). However, not too many empirical studies have been done on this issue. Of the few in existence, most are qualitative studies that make do with small sizes of samples. Very few quantitative studies have attempted to investigate samples of a sizeable mature of grieving African American women. This research, with large sample sizes, well established measures, and current data ion its methodology sought to test several hypotheses. Research is indicative of the fact that, more often than not, African Americans experience loss of a loved one to accidents or suicide. It is thus hypothesized that there will be a similar pattern to the current sample of young African American males. Since African American women put emphasis on a spiritual connection with the dead, they tend to maintain continuing and strong bonds than Caucasian women. With the high level of interconnectedness in their community, loss of a relationship could impact negatively on the sense of identity suffered by African American women. African American women are more likely to report this change as being for the worse as compared to Caucasian women. As African American families operate in units, the loss of a relationship, such as a son, will cause more distress to the African American women than to their Caucasian counterparts. As past research has shown, a hypothesis is made that African American women do not seek professional help to deal with the loss of a son to suicide at, for example, the number of Caucasian women who do. Methodology Study entailed taking up a sample size of 150, and this was successfully achieved by collecting data from 191 African American women. Additionally, the previous and new data collected for the study were (N=89) and (N=102) respectively. The above was arrived at through the application of BWP analysis. The analysis came up with an alpha level and moderate effect of .05 and .15 respectively. The study was further enhanced after approval was given to use data from a different study by Dr. Nadine Kaslow. Dr. Nadine Kaslow is the Principal Investigator of a Project known as “The Grady Nia”. The data from “The Grady Nia Project” was crucial because it entailed information on suicide associated with African American women who were taking up medical or mental treatment in a southeastern hospital. In this part, sample size of (N=89) was used. The characteristics that qualified an individual in the study were; female, age between 18 and 65 years old, identify as African American and have experienced suicidal attempts in the recent 12 months. The women attending hospital services in areas such as medical and psychiatric Emergency rooms, hospital Emergency room, department of Ob/Gyn and others were referred directly for the study. The study had an initial screening which students both graduates and undergraduates screened the participants. To confirm the suitability of the African American women in the study, the screening, entailed recruiters, reading out questions to the women that would ascertain the desired characteristics for the study. The women also consented to be part of the study. After being screened and qualified, the women who were included in the study were provided with additional information pertaining to the study, and they provided the researchers with their personal contact information, which would be used when carrying out the interview. The studies entailed collecting data from the respondents in four different occasions, which were; baseline, after 10 weeks, after 6 months and later after 12 months. However, the study is still in progress, and it only has the baseline data (Green, 2012). Study participants were provided with numerous questionnaires that assessed their lives in terms of; family and social support, comprehensive mental health, quality of life, suicidal tendencies, racial identity, depression, coping, SBW attitudes and access to medical and psychiatric care. The baseline data were derived after measuring the variables such as; racial identity, coping, SBW attitudes, depression symptoms, hopelessness and suicidal tendencies. The data collection took place between October 2002 and October 2006 (Green, 2012). Demographic Information The participants in during the study had to provide their original race or ethnicity. For instance, they had to name race in terms of being Black Hispanics, Caribbean American or African American. Additionally, the participants provided demographic information detailing their; age, place and date of birth, income level, employment status, household status, relationship status, education level and the number of children. In the second part, the study entailed the participants (N=102). This was derived from a community organization offering women and their families various healthcare services. The sample was collected from Centre for Black Women’s Wellness (CBWW), whose mission is to provide health for the less privileged African American women. The criteria followed to include participants in the study comprised of; females, age between 18 and 65 and ascertained self-identity as African American. The sample showed that African American women were (92%) while single were (52.9%). On the other hand, the participants had a mean age of 40.84 and (51.1%) of the respondents had an income that was averagely $ 10,000. When comparing the samples from “Nia” and “CBWW” it was found that women who featured in CBWW sample were more educated, had high incomes and had less children compared to the women in the “Nia” sample who were less educated, had less incomes and had many children. Moreover, the data revealed that many women from the “CBWW” sample (66%) were employed. This was contrary to the women from the “Nia” sample whom only (12.4%) were employed (Green, 2012). Procedure The procedure of the study consisted of three major parts, which are is recruitment, training, and collaboration. Collaboration Collaboration between the Center for Black Women Wellness and the principal investigator enhanced the study. This collaboration involved explaining the purpose of the research, as well as its scope. The principal investigator gave the members of the Centre for Black Women’s Wellness regular updates in order to make them better acquainted with the developments of the study. This collaboration yielded a creation plan aimed at disseminating the findings of the study. The study’s dissemination, essentially, would be via the researcher sharing the results of the study to the community members and staff (Green, 2012). Training During the research, one of research assistant was trained for the research. She was drawn from the psychology department and was the holder of a then current CITI certification, which approved her capability in handling ethical research via the use of human subjects. During the course of the research, the research assistant became better acquainted with its purpose and scope, as well as the scoring procedures and the instruments that were to be used. She was further trained in storage of data, as well as specific procedures required for handling this data. In addition, the research assistant also got training in data storage. Specific procedures for the handling of information considered confidential were outlined, with secure transportation and storage being given increased importance. In order to familiarize herself with the research site and meet the community staff, the research assistant tagged along with the Principal Investigator (Green, 2012). Recruitment The study’s researcher as able to recruit participants via fliers posted in waiting rooms, consisting of the contact information via which to reach the principal investigator and through onsite worker’s referrals. The research assistant, together with the researcher, also approached women in the organization’s waiting room. Before the consent process, the research assistant proffered an overview of the study’s scope and purpose. Those women who agreed to be part of the study went through a thorough process of consent, where they were provided, with the consent forms, to familiarize themselves with while the researcher reviewed the consent form verbally. Participants were also given an opportunity for them to request a summary of the study findings (Gamble, 1997). The participants indicated to the researcher whether they would like a summary and provided the researcher with their addresses on separate cards. The women who completed their questionnaires received information regarding therapeutic referrals if they were ever interested in seeking psychological care. For those women who could not fill in the questionnaires, due to having prior appointments were given an envelope labeled “confidential” to place their questionnaires once complete. They were further instructed to leave their envelopes at the organization’s front desk in order for them to be collected by the principal investigator. Women who were reluctant to participate were informed that their refusal would not have any effect on their ability to receive services from the organization and were provided with referral lists, if they did desire one. Limitations and Strengths of the Study Despite all the efforts put into trying to capture the effects of suicide of a son on African American women, no scenario of bereavement can describe all the individuals in a cultural group, especially in one gender. Individuals will mourn in varied ways, and the study, as it was conducted, was not meant to sum up experiences of black women. The study was meant to aid in illuminating the manner, in which grief suffered by African American women from losing their sons to suicide is affected by their society and their upbringing. The term African American, as was used throughout the study distinctly encompasses varied cultures including women of West African descent who are naturalized citizens. It also consists of those who immigrated from the West Indies and South America. Making an assumption that they have uniform grief was one of the study’s major shortcomings, since it commits a disservice to the uniqueness, values, and traits of the community of African Americans (Green, 2012). Another limitation of the study had to do with its sample of women visiting a centre for wellness. This means that the women studied had been seeking for help, with a larger and more significant number of women not covered. The age of some of the women, that is eighteen years of age, could be a mistake since some of these women are not mature enough to be mothers of children at suicide age. The study should also have been more representative with women of mixed race who consider themselves African Americans but were not considered. The study was not inclusive of the women’s socio-economic status. This status could be vital in how they deal with suicide to their son’s and their ability to get help if unable to cope with the grief. However, sampling women from diverse descent, such as the West Indies, West Africa, and South America, as well as native, African Americans, proved to be one of the study’s main strengths (Green, 2012). Another limitation to the study had to do, with the use of a single item, to find out from participants the various ways in which they dealt with their grief. The study failed to enquire about any help accorded to women from outside their family and extended family networks, with the only example of this being from friends. In the future, such studies should need to explore the effects on the women on time spent with friends during the grieving period, since this study puts too much emphasis on coping mechanisms derived from upbringing and family. The studies should also consider the social support phenomenon in a manner that is more multi-dimensional (Green, 2012). The use of ICG-R is another limitation of the study. It could be that, the construct being measured by the study, has more to do with effects of grief on mono-racial African Americans as than with the way other multi-cultural African American women deal with their grief due to the death of their sons to suicide. Finally, even though the study’s focus on bonds in African American families is open to spiritual interpretation, the study did not take into account the measure of religious coping that can be considered as a strong coping mechanism for these women. Any study on this topic in the future would do well to assess the women’s spiritual upbringing as an adaptive factor in their adjustment to bereavement (Green, 2012). References Blazer, D.G., Kessler, R.C., McGonagle, K.A. (1994): The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: The national morbidity survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(7), 979-986. DeFrancisco, V.L., & Chatham-Carpenter, A. (2000): Self in community: African American women’s views of self-esteem. The Howard Journal of Communications, 11, 73-92. Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R.S., (1986): The dynamics of a stressful encounter. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 50(5), 992–1003 Gamble, V. (1997). Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care. American Journal of Public Health, 8711), 1773–1779. Green, Bradies. (2012). The Moderating Influence of Strength on Depression and Suicide in African American Women. Georgia State University Digital Archive , 1-137. Hammack, P. L.; Robinson, W. L.; Crawford, I.; Li, S. T.; (2004) Poverty and depressed mood among urban African American adolescents: A family stress perspective. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 13(3), 309-323. Klein, R.J. & Proctor, S.E. (2000): Leading health indicators: Data trends and disparities. Presentation at the National Center for Health Statistics and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Marion, M.S., & Range, L.M. (2003): African American college women’s suicide buffers. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 33(1), 33-43. Poussaint, A. F., & Alexander, A. (2000): Lay my burden down: Unraveling suicide and the mental health crisis among African Americans. Boston: Beacon Press. Romero, R. E. (2000). The icon of the strong Black woman: The paradox of strength. In L. C Jackson & B. Greene (Eds.), Psychotherapy with African American women: Innovations in Psychodynamic Perspectives (pp. 225-238). New York: Guilford. Read More