The National Coalition against Domestic Violence - Research Paper Example

? Domestic Violence as a Gender Issue Lecturer: Presentation: Domestic Violence as a Gender Issue Domestic or intimate partner violence is defined by The National Coalition against Domestic Violence (NCADV, 2011) as ‘the willful intimidation, physical assault, sexual assault, battery and/or any other abusive behavior perpetrated by an intimate partner against another’. The World Health Organization report on violence and health indicates that gender-based violence is the most common form of violence against women and is perpetrated by the husband or an intimate male partner (WHO, 2012). Research studies also reveal that one in every four women has experienced domestic violence in her lifetime and that 85% women are physically assaulted by an intimate partner each year. These reports show that domestic violence is a persistent gender issue which even the justice systems have not been able to solve. The topic on gender- based violence is, therefore, of great interest to me and other researchers especially due to the fact that it happens behind closed doors making it invisible and difficult to resolve. Though men also have violence instigated upon them by their partners, rarely is it reported to the authorities, hence, making it difficult to know the extent of violence against men. Furthermore, women organizations have cropped up over time creating awareness on violence against women, thus, making it an international issue and ignoring the violence against men (WHO, 2012). As a result, gender-based violence is considered a women issue, besides men rarely report violence cases so as not lose their honor, hence, continue to suffer in silence. The paper will discuss the prevalence, nature and extent of gender-based violence. It will research on the types, causes, and the effects of domestic violence. It will also discuss the laws enacted to resolve this issue as well as the role of the law enforcement authorities. Since the issue is international in nature, the paper will also discuss the various responses by international bodies and organizations. Conclusions and recommendations will then be made. Statement of the Problem Domestic violence is a serious gender issue and an important health problem. It occurs in all countries irrespective of social, economic, religious, or cultural group. Domestic violence is a common cause of injuries, depression and death and is considered as the worst form of human rights violation. Though women are also violent, and violence may occur between same-sex partners, most of the burden is experienced by women at the hands of men. Leone, Johnson and Cohan (2007) note that between two to six million women are assaulted by their partners annually. However, most cases go unnoticed due to the nature of violence; it is private and most victims do not report such cases due to fear of retaliation by the abuser, hence, the figure could be much higher. This leads us to the question: Why women are the most victims of this cruel act? Many researchers have tried to give explanations as to why this is the case but no matter the reasons, none of them can ever justify the act and measures need to be taken to alleviate the problem once and for all. Domestic violence takes various forms such as physical, psychological and emotional violence, but physical violence is the most prevalent. The Bureau of Justice Statistics (2003) indicates that 85% of women are physically assaulted annually and nearly 7.8 million women are raped at some point in their lives by an intimate partner. 81% are stalked while 31% are sexually assaulted by an intimate partner. These statistics are a proof that unlike men who are assaulted by a stranger, women are abused by intimate partners such as husbands, boyfriends and close relatives. This is mostly so given the fact that legal systems and cultural norms do not treat gender violence as a crime, but rather as a ‘private family matter’ (WHO, 2012). It is, therefore, important to create awareness about the consequences of the vice and the mechanisms possible for victims to report the crimes without fear of retaliation. This topic is important in helping to establish why women are the most victimized and how the problem can be eliminated. It is also evident from the research that whenever women are abused by an intimate partner, there is likelihood of the children to be abused not forgetting the emotional trauma that is accompanied with observing violence. This has been known to affect children later in life as some of them become adolescent or adult perpetrators of violence in future making it impossible to eliminate the problem completely (Jaffe, 2006). The topic also sheds light on why women choose to remain in abusive relationships and what the justice system is doing to ensure women are protected and that the menace is alleviated. It also helps in understanding what we can do as a society to help the victims of such violence and eliminate such a vice in society. Failure to control the problem may lead to a public health crisis due to physical injuries, psychological disorders, unwanted pregnancies, emotional problems and death. Literature Review The Center for Disease Control And Prevention (2009) defines domestic violence as the actual or threatened physical, sexual, emotional or psychological abuse directed towards a partner in an intimate relationship. It is not a one time event but a pattern of domination and control by men with its roots in the ancient tradition which tolerated and encouraged violence against women as a sign of power for men (Davis, 2006). There is, thus, a high correlation between violence against women and gender. The gender difference and men superiority are also apparent in the Bible which teaches women to be submissive to their husbands. After men sinned against God, He gave them each tasks to perform; women were given the task of procreation and nurturing while men were to protect and provide for their families. Gender role divisions are apparent today and are the cause of most of these problems as men try to assert their power against women. This results in the various forms of violence such as physical, psychological, and sexual violence. Physical violence involves actual or threatened harm to an intimate partner that results in physical injuries. This involves actions such as slapping, hitting, and beating (WHO, 2012). This is the most common form of violence in intimate relationships. Research also suggests that physical abuse is often accompanied by other forms of abuse such as psychological and sexual abuse. The world report on health and violence of 2000 by WHO indicates that among 163 Japanese women interviewed, 57% had suffered all the three types of abuse with only less than 10% suffering physical abuse only. Most of the victims also reported severe abuse. Physical violence is easier to record as injuries are noticeable as opposed to other forms such as psychological abuse which is difficult to detect. Sexual violence entails having canal knowledge of a woman by use of force resulted into actual or attempted rape. It can also be unconsented oral sex, sexual harassment, causing injury to sexual areas of victim, and refusal to use precautionary measures to prevent unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. It is difficult to detect marital rape as it happens in privacy and is difficult to prove; furthermore, women are supposed to be submissive to their husbands, hence marital rape may not be considered as a crime. Women are also violated when they are trafficked for pornography, prostitution, and sex tourism as they try to find alternative means of earning an income (Saisan et al., 2009). This type of violence leaves permanent mark on women especially emotional problems and they suffer silently due to shame and fear of what the society would think of them. In some communities such as in Bombay, women who had been raped were killed to cleanse the family honor (WHO, 2012). This was based on the belief of male honor and women chastity, hence raped women would rather keep silent than be killed. Though marital rape is not taken seriously by law enforcement authorities, women have a reproductive right to refuse to have unprotected sex and violators of such rights should be punished. Psychological abuse is the use of intimidation and threats to gain control over a woman or victim (Jaffe, 2006). Most women immigrants suffer this kind of violence for fear of deportation and due to dependence on men for economic needs. The men, therefore, may deny them financial resources so as to control them. They may also threaten them with dire consequences if they fail to obey them since they have no otherwise; they are constrained by language barrier and poverty. Rural women are also vulnerable to this kind of violence due to economic dependence on men. Such women are isolated from their families and friends, thus emotional torture takes place. They are also restricted from gaining access to information and assistance. The victims often lose self-esteem and are vulnerable to other types of abuse. Stalking is also another form of domestic violence which entails verbal or written threats to an intimate partner or actions that cause fear in a person. However, it is difficult to prove this kind of violence as no actual harm is caused, hence, in most countries, stalking is not recognized as a crime (WHO, 2012). These types of domestic violence mostly arise from gender disparities between men and women in employment, education, and gender stereotyping among other gender issues. One of the major causes of gender-based violence is culture. Most cultures emphasize male superiority over females and gender roles are a confirmation of this difference (Davis, 2006). Women especially rural and traditional women are confined in the kitchen and their work is to bear children, nurture them and care for the whole family while men are breadwinners. As such, women are discriminated in all aspects of their lives making them subjects of men and increasing their vulnerability to abuse. Due to the roles women are socialized into and due to lack of educational qualifications, they end up in lowly paid service jobs. They also take up part-time and temporary jobs so as to have time for their families and be good wives. Statistics show that even the learned women find it hard to be absorbed in managerial positions or well paying jobs due to their gender. Despite efforts to ensure gender equality, a gap still exists between men and women with men being far more superior to women (Powell & Graves, 2003). This makes women vulnerable to abuse by their intimate male partners. Another aspect of cultural contribution to violence is the stance taken by society on this issue. Some communities justified and continue to justify violence against women as a means of discipline. According to WHO (2012), violence is culturally and religiously justified in Pakistan as a way of disciplining a woman; men are ‘owners’ of their wives. Women are mostly assaulted due to simple reasons such as failing to provide ready food on time, refusing sex, and going out without permission among others. In some cultures, women are not supposed to inherit property, thus men own the resources which help them dominate women and abuse them. Domestic violence can, therefore, be attributed to male dominance as a result of cultural beliefs and norms. Pruitt (2008) noted some correlation between level of education and violence. He noted that 58% of women who were educated did not report violence and that violence was more apparent in rural than urban settings. This is due to the fact that educated women who are mostly in urban areas are enlightened and know their rights, hence, cannot condone such violence. Instead, they report to authorities for further action or find better ways of solving issues than resulting to violence. Most rural women are uneducated and are not aware of their rights, hence are vulnerable to violence. The educated women are not dependent on men like uneducated women and this may explain the low rates of violence among this group. However, rural women also lack proper infrastructure such as health facilities to get treatment for injuries or help services, hence continue to suffer the abuse. Psychological disorders such as insecure attachments, personality traits, and not being able to control emotions may lead to violence (WHO, 2012). Research also suggests that exposure to abuse in childhood may lead to future abuse. Children who witness abuse or are abused become abusers later in life, thus worsening the situation. According to studies, 3.3-10 million children witness domestic violence annually. Though culture, economic dependence, psychological disorders and lack of education cause domestic violence, not all violence can be attributed to such factors. It is the individuals’ choice to determine whether to be violent or not, hence there is no excuse for such behavior. In societies that condone wife beating, not all men beat their wives; it is a personal choice. Some perpetrators do so under the influence of alcohol and drugs while others especially women do so to defend themselves from abusive partners (Davis, 2006). Gender based violence has various consequences for victims and the society as a whole. One such consequence is increased medical costs due to treatment of physical injuries. Furthermore, those who suffer serious injuries become unproductive leading to costs in terms of job loss and lost productivity for the company. This, in turn, affects the whole community. Another consequence is homicide especially where weapons are used. Research indicates that more women than men are murdered due to domestic violence. Studies in South Africa, US, Canada, and Australia revealed that 70% of female murder is committed by a husband or boyfriend (WHO, 2012). Only 4% of murders were against men by wives in the US in 1996. Most murders in the US are committed using weapons while in India homicides are due to beatings and fire. Most perpetrators who use weapons do so as a defensive tactic. Another consequence of domestic violence is unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. This is due to rape and sexual assault, hence a correlation between violence and HIV for women. Sexual violence may also lead to postnatal depression for women and psychological disorders. Unwanted pregnancies among teenage girls due to sexual violence may result in abortion and death and sometimes drop out of school, thus, lack necessary skills for survival. Reports also indicate that most of those women abused early in life experience abuse later in life, hence rape makes women vulnerable to abuse (Davis, 2006). The victims of domestic violence who are mostly women have various coping mechanisms. Leaving the relationship is an option for these women since it is a lengthy process. Research indicates that most women leave and return several times before ending the relationship (WHO, 2012). Some women decide to remain in abusive relationships for the sake of children especially due to fear of losing custody. Others have no means of survival due to economic dependence on men, therefore, are forced to persevere. Reports show that some women especially those from cultures where wife battery is a norm have accepted that violence is part of life, hence, see no fault in being disciplined for wrong doing. They, therefore, live in denial and rarely expose their problems to others. According to world report on health and violence, 70% of abused women never told anyone about the abuse until they were interviewed. In some cases, measures such as divorce and marriage counseling only serve to worsen the problem. Women are at risk of retaliation by their partners hence opting to remain in abusive marriages. Leaving the relationship is therefore not a guarantee to ending abuse (WHO, 2012). As noted earlier, immigrants find it difficult to quit their abusive relationships due to language barriers and fear of deportation. Violence is more prevalent among the black Americans and Asians than whites especially as Asian women are subjected to violence by relatives. There is thus need to explore the role of law enforcement agencies in helping victims. The law enforcement agencies are in most cases reluctant to deal with domestic violence issues especially as they are considered a ‘family’ or ‘private’ matter, thus, unless the victim makes a complaint, they do not interfere. The couple is in most cases expected to settle the issue behind closed doors, hence the police are not quick to respond to their calls. The agencies were also ill equipped to handle such cases, but in recent times the agencies are well equipped and can handle such cases easily. They are well trained on how to handle the victims such that they do not fear to report such incidences in future (Bird, 2006). Lack of consistency in the definition of violence made it difficult for law enforcers to curb the crime by arresting perpetrators. However, due to pressure from women rights groups the government came up with a consistent definition of domestic violence to enable arrests and sentencing. Various laws have also been enacted to deal with this menace such as the Violence against Women Act which recognized the seriousness of this gender issue hence allowing the offense to be prosecuted by the department of justice (Bird, 2006). Tighter controls such as gun control and prohibition of immigration with intent of causing harm have been put in place to minimize incidences of intimate partner violence. Feminist groups’ activities creating awareness of domestic violence have made it an international concern demanding an international response. The World Conference on Human Rights held in Vienna led to the declaration on the elimination of violence against women. It emphasized the need for the civil society and various governments to recognize domestic violence as a serious issue which required some intensive research and human rights concern. Organizations such the World Health Organization have been in the forefront in conducting research and using the results gained to develop policies on how to eliminate this evil in society. Non governmental organizations have also helped much to educate and support victims of violence and in efforts aimed at reducing domestic violence. With everyone making it own business to ensure violence is eliminated, it is hoped that domestic violence will be a problem of the past. Conclusion Domestic violence is a very serious gender issue in the society and a public health problem and a major cause of injuries, depression and death. It occurs to all countries and all people despite social, economic, religious, or cultural group and age. It refers to physical, sexual, or psychological harm inflicted on an individual by an intimate partner mostly males. The most common form of domestic violence is physical violence but none of these forms occur in isolation, rather, each is accompanied by the others. The violence against women is more prevalent than against men making it to be violence against women or gender-based violence. This is because women are more vulnerable to abuse due to cultural factors, economic dependence, unemployment, and illiteracy among other factors. Men also rarely report violence incidences due to fear of losing dignity and respect in society. Violence against women unlike men is perpetrated by an intimate partner while men suffer under a stranger. Despite various efforts by law enforcement agencies, government organizations and non-governmental organizations, domestic violence continues to be a thorny issue. Women need to be empowered through education and gender equity in order to be able to be independent and reduce vulnerability to abuse. There also needs to be a cultural shift to eliminate gender stereotyping and most of all, further research needs to be carried out to establish prevalence of violence against men and how it can be eliminated. References Bird, R. (2006). Domestic Violence Law and Practice. Jordan Publishing Ltd. Bureau of Justice Statistics Crime Data Brief. (2003). Intimate Partner Violence, 1993-2001. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). Intimate Partner Violence can lead to Serious Injury. Retrieved 2 July, 2012, from http://www.cdc.gov/injury Davis, R. (2006). Domestic Violence: Facts and Fallacies. USA: Praeger Publishers. Jaffe, J. (2006). Domestic Violence and Abuse: Types, Signs, Symptoms, Causes and Effects. The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. Leone, J., Johnson, M., & Cohan, C. (2007). Victim Help Seeking: Differences between Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence. Family Relations, 56(5): 428-439. National Coalition against Domestic Violence. (2011). Domestic Violence Facts. Retrieved June 30, 2012 from http://www.ncadv.org/files/DomesticViolenceFactSheet (National).pdf. Powell, G., & Graves, L. (2003). Women and Men in Management. 3 ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Pruitt, L. (2008). Place Matters: Domestic Violence and Rural Difference. Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender and Society, 23(2): 347-416. Saisan, J., Smith, M., & Segal, J. (2009). Child Abuse and Neglect: Recognizing and Preventing Child Abuse. Retrieved 30 June, 2012, from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/child-abuse-physical-emotional-sexual-neglect.htm WHO. (2012). Gender Based Violence. Retrieved 3 July, 2012, from http://www.who.int/gender/violence/gbv/en/inde.html Read More