Exploring the Experiences of Harsh Rearing Practices - Essay Example

?Running Head: HARSH REARING PRACTICES Exploring the Experiences of Harsh Rearing Practices Exploring the Experiences of Harsh Rearing Practices Introduction While most parents discipline their children with love, understanding, and compassion, some, although well-intentioned, use harsher methods of discipline that may negatively affect a child (Shea, 2008). Those negative consequences may persist through adulthood. As posited by Dean (1979) some parents' intentions are "legitimate and positive, but the results are devastating" (p. 20). Dean relates the story of a young female whose parents shaved her head as a punishment for returning home late one evening. In this case, their harsh method of disciplining was labeled as emotional abuse because of the humiliating component of the punishment and its long-term effects (p. 19). At what point do parents become abusive? According to Grusec and Walter (1991), "parenting socialization practices can be arranged on a continuum… from 'good to bad," with abusive childrearing practices at the negative end of this continuum" (p. 189). They categorize five socialization practices that might be found toward the end of the continuum and that may be potentially abusive. They include harmful disciplinary practices (withdrawal of love, humiliation, authoritarian methods of childrearing); lack of responsivity, warmth, and acceptance; exposure to deviant models (pornography… family violence); extreme overprotection, and exploitation; (i.e., a child who becomes a "parent" to his mother and father). However, the line between harsh parenting practices and psychological maltreatment of a child might be difficult to delineate because not all harsh forms of punishment are labeled as abusive. In some cases, harsh punishment might be effective (Crosson, 2005). In a study examining the relationship between different forms of parenting and adolescent adjustment, Avenevoli, Sassa, and Steinberg (1999) found that authoritarian parenting style was correlated with an increase in GPA in certain minority families (Asian middle-class intact families and single-parent families) and a decrease in delinquency in some minority families. However, the harsh parenting style is "generally related to greater psychological distress, lower self-esteem, lower GPA and lower substance use" (p. 79). When harsh parenting methods are inflicted on children without any positive input from parents, psychological maltreatment may ensue, often without the knowledge of the perpetrator or the victim and often with devastating results for the children (Dean, 1979). Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to explore and to better understand the perception that participants have about the way they were parented and the possible role their upbringing plays in their current life and in their interaction with their children when applicable. Since it has been shown that women who were psychologically abused as children tend to minimize or deny having been abused (Ferguson & Dacey, 1997), another objective of this study is to explore this issue and examine whether some victims of psychological abuse are indeed reluctant to label their experience as abuse. Lastly, this study will also explore the possibility that some mediating factors, such as maternal support, sibling support, or extended family support, helped the participants cope with abuse. Literature Review Briere and Runtz (1990) examined the possible unique relationship between the three different kinds of abuse (psychological, physical and sexual) and their impact on self-esteem, aggression and dysfunctional sexual behavior respectively, and found a unique relationship between psychological abuse and low self-esteem. They also found unique associations between physical abuse and higher levels of aggression and between sexual abuse and sexually maladaptive behavior. The sample was composed of 277 female college students enrolled in an introductory course in psychology. However, the authors cautioned that the different kinds of abuse may co-occur and that no single consequence of any kind of abuse should be taken restrictively. In a study examining the effect of two different kinds of abuse (psychological and physical), Gross and Keller (1992) found that childhood psychological maltreatment (CPM) was the most important predictor of low self-esteem, depression, and maladaptive attributional style. The sample included 260 freshmen college students (116 females and 94 males) between the ages of 18 and 22. Their definition of psychological maltreatment was based on Hart, Germain, and Brassard's (1987) and included rejecting, degrading, isolating, terrorizing, corrupting, and denying emotional responsiveness. Their definition of maladaptive attributional style "attribute[ed] external, unstable and specific causes to good events and internal, stable, and global causes to bad events" (p. 176). The sample was divided into four groups: participants who were psychologically abused, those who were physically and psychological abused, and a control group of individuals who were not abused. The authors found that participants who reported both physical and psychological abuse had a greater tendency to be depressed and had lower self­ esteem than the other groups. However, they posited that psychological abuse "appears to be a much more powerful variable than physical abuse in terms of effects on depression" (p. 179) and "is much more powerful" than physical abuse in predicting low self-esteem (p. 180). As for attributional style, they stated that, although the students in the sample were not particularly maladapted, psychological abuse was "the critical variable" in obtaining significance after controlling for the effects of physical abuse (p. 180). Ferguson and Dacey (1997) examined the relationship between childhood abuse (physical, psychological and sexual) and manifestations of anxiety, depression, and dissociative behavior in adult women. The authors designed the Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ) and assigned participants to the different groups: psychologically abused, physically abused, sexually abused, any combination of these abuses, and not abused. The CEQ contained 11 questions pertaining to psychological maltreatment and was based on Hart and Brassard's definition (1991). Ferguson and Dacey's 1997 sample was composed of 110 women working as health care professionals (nurses, respiratory therapists and medical secretaries) in a hospital in the Midwest. Fifty-five women had a history of CPM, physical or sexual abuse and were thus categorized in the experimental group. The control group consisted of 55 women without any history of abuse. In the first analysis, the authors isolated women who reported a history of CPM exclusively (n = 31) and compared them to the control group (no abuse), on the variables of anxiety, depression, and dissociative behavior. They found significant difference on all three variables with the CPM group reporting higher levels of anxiety, depression, and dissociative experiences than did the non- abused group. In a subsequent analysis, Ferguson and Dacey (1997) compared women in the two other types of abuse groups (physical and sexual) to the control group. For these two groups, no significant difference was found on the measure of anxiety. However, depression was significantly higher in the sexually abused group when compared to the control group. As for dissociative behavior, there was a significant difference between the sexually abused group and the control group with the abused group showing higher levels of dissociative behavior. For dissociative behavior, no difference was found between the physically abused group and the control group. In contrast, the authors found a significant difference between women in the combined abused group and the control group on the variable of dissociative behavior. Interestingly, Ferguson and Dacey (1997) found that of the women who reported exclusively a history of CPM on the CEQ (n = 31) only 38% considered themselves victims of CPM. According to the authors, this suggested that most women in that group did not perceive their experiences as abusive. In the study involving a non-clinical sample of 174 parents of children between the ages of one and ten, Varia, Abidin, and Dass (1996) studied the effects of three kinds of abuse (verbal, physical, sexual, and a combination of those three) on a number of personality variables. The definition of psychological maltreatment used in their study was provided by Briere and Runtz (1990) and consists of the following components: 1) being yelled at, 2) being insulted, 3) being criticized, 4) being made to feel guilty, 5) being ridiculed or humiliated, 6) being embarrassed in front of others, or 7) being made to feel like a bad person. Overall, Varia, Abidin, and Dass (1996) found that non-abused individuals have better personality adjustment than both the abused and the minimizers. They found that the non-abused group was generally "more conscientious, moderate, responsible and patient" than the two other groups. The minimizers tended to be "more impulsive, temperamental, headstrong, demanding and rebellious" (p. 520). Of the three kinds of abuse, Varia, Abidin, and Dass (1996) found that verbal abuse had significantly greater impact on the abused and minimizer groups on personality measures of self-control and creating a good impression (wanting to please others and make a good impression). Consistent with the literature (Briere & Runthz, 1990), Varia, Abidin, and Dass (1996) found that the non-abused individuals had significantly higher scores of self-esteem than the abused and the minimizer groups. Finding that a majority of males fell into the minimizer group, the authors hypothesized that "men are more likely to utilize a denying coping strategy to deal with past abuse" (p. 522). In a follow-up study relating to the perception of psychological abuse and the quality of past and current relationships, Varia and Abidin (1999) found that the non-abused and minimizer groups reported similar levels of satisfaction in their adult relationships, while individuals in the abused group reported the lowest level of satisfaction. They also found that maternal warmth and affection seems to buffer the detrimental effects of psychological abuse, which the authors suggested may be why the minimizers do not consider themselves to have been abused. Although research on psychological maltreatment and emotional abuse is at its embryonic stage, its existence is clear. However, little is understood about how the victims of abuse perceive their personal experience. That is, we do not know what victims of psychological maltreatment feel about their experiences, how they define them, how they survived, and how they believe they were affected by it. Do they realize that they were emotionally maltreated, and if so, when did they realize this, and what kind of impact did their realization have on their lives? "normal" and "harsh" parenting resides? Method Design The qualitative, phenomenological method will be employed because little is understood about the personal experience of victims of harsh parenting practices or childhood psychological maltreatment. According to Creswell (2002), "the goal of the phenomenological method is to explore and explain personal experience of certain individuals to gain a better understanding of a central phenomenon" (p. 52). Indeed, the aim of this study is to understand the personal, inner experiences of victims of harsh parenting behavior and childhood psychological maltreatment. While there is undeniable interest in knowing whether victims of emotional abuse deny or minimize their victimization (Ferguson & Dacey, 1997), the primary interest in a study based on the phenomenological approach is to understand and describe the phenomenon as people live it, without preconceived ideas, theories, or explanations (Wertz, 2005, p. 168). More specifically, the research question of this approach is "How do people consciously experience it?" (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003, p. 23). The study will be conducted using a qualitative, narrative research design, and data will be collected through semi-structured interviews. The narrative research method entails collecting personal life experiences of the participants through interviews, then transcribing, analyzing, and finally discussing them (Creswell, 2002). Focus will be on each participant's past and current experience with harsh parenting and/or psychological maltreatment. Participants The sample will consist around 11-15 participants. The number of participants in the sample should be able to meet the requirements of the phenomenological method. According to Creswell (2000), this method of study, which involves in-depth interviews, may be achieved with "as many as 10 individuals" (p. 122). However, Creswell cited studies that included as few as one participant and as many as 325 participants (Creswell, 2000). Wertz (2005) posited that the number of participants can only be determined by the nature of the research problem and mentioned that in certain cases one participant may be sufficient. Since the phenomenological methodology requires only participants who have experienced the phenomenon (Creswell, 2000), recruitment will be accomplished through an advertisement soliciting individuals who believe either that they were harshly parented as a child or were victims of CPM. Data Collection Data will be collected through semi-structured interviews, using open-ended and closed-ended questions. Besides the questions especially developed for this study, few questions will be used from Ferguson and Dacey's (1997) Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ). The CEQ will be modified for this study and will only include questions pertaining to behaviors associated with childhood psychological maltreatment (CPM), physical abuse, and sexual abuse. During the interview, the participants will be asked to respond to the following questions: 1. What about the way you were parented causes you to label it as harsh? 2. If you feel you were emotionally abused, what made you label it as abuse or maltreatment? 3. How do you believe that harsh parenting and emotional abuse are different from one another? 4. Do you feel your experience with harsh parenting or abuse has an influence on your current life? 5. Do you feel your childhood experience has some influence on those two elements: Child rearing practices with your child/children Decision to have a child or delay becoming a parent 6. If you have been the victim of multiple abuses (physical, sexual, emotional), what kind of maltreatment felt the most harmful to you? 7. What do you believe provided a protective shield against your experience with harsh parenting or emotional abuse? Procedure Before the final interviews, a pilot interview with a volunteer will be completed. At the end of the interview, the volunteer will be asked to make feedback/suggestion for the interview process. Any Suggestion/feedback will be integrated in the interview process. Before the final interviews, participant will be verbally reminded that the interview has to be recorded and, once again, verbal permission will be obtained. At the end of the interview, the participants will be given the following documents: questionnaire, and definitions. They will be asked to complete the questionnaire first and read the definition afterward. The goal of providing a written definition is strictly informative in nature and is not intended to guide the participants in their answers. The purpose of this study is to understand the participants' perception of their experience with psychological maltreatment or harsh parenting, so their candor in answering the questionnaire is critical. Ethical Considerations Informed consent will be obtained from the participants. They will be informed that their participation will be completely voluntary and they can chose not to participate in this study at any stage. Furthermore, complete anonymity will be assured. All information will be maintained in a locked filing cabinet in an anonymous form (number- coded) up to one year after successful oral defense of the dissertation. Only the principal investigator will have the access to the complete data, including identity of the participants, the responses to the questionnaire, audio-tapes, paper transcriptions of the interviews, and the names of the participants. One year after successful oral defense of the dissertation, the audio tapes will be incinerated, electronic data will be deleted from the computer, and paper transcriptions will be shredded. If the information gathered in this study is published or presented, no names or initials will be used. References Auerbach, C.F., & Silverstein, L. B. (2003). Qualitative data: An introduction to coding and analysis. New York: New York University Press. Avenevoli, S., Sessa, F. M., & Steinberg, L., (1999). Family structure, parenting practices, and adolescent adjustment: an ecological examination. In Hetherington, E.M., (Ed). Coping with divorce, single parenting and remarriage. (pp. 65-90). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Briere, H, & Runtz, M., (1990). Differential adult symptomatology associated with three types of child abuse histories. Child abuse and Neglect, 14, 357-364. Creswell, J., (2002). Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Merrill Prentice Hall. Crosson-Tower, C. (2005). Understanding child abuse and neglect (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Dean, D. (1979). Emotional abuse of Children. Children Today, 19-20. Ferguson, K. S., & Dacey, C. M. (1997). Anxiety, depression and dissociation in women health care providers reporting a history of childhood psychological abuse. Child abuse and neglect, 21, 941-952. Gross, B. A., & Keller, H. R. (1992). Long-term consequences of childhood physical and psychological maltreatment. Aggressive Behavior. 18(3), 171-185. Grusec, J. E., & Walters, G.c. (1991). Psychological abuse and childrearing belief systems. In Starr, R., Wolfe, D.A. The effects of child abuse and neglect: issues and research. (pp. 186-202). New York: Guilford. Hart, S. N., Germain, R. B., & Brassard, M. R., (1987). The challenge: To better understand and combat psychological maltreatment of children and youth. In Brassard M.R., Germain, R., & Hart, S.N. (eds.) Psychological maltreatment of children and youth. (pp. 3-24). New York: Pergamon Press. Shea, Sarah E. Coyne, Lisa W. (2008) "Parenting Styles." Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology.. SAGE Publications. 19 Aug. 2011. . Varia, R, Abidin, R., & Dass, P. (1996). Perceptions of abuse: Effects on adult psychological and social adjustment. Child Abuse and Neglect. 20, 511-526. Varia, R., & Abidin, R. R. (1999). The minimizing style: Perceptions of psychological abuse and quality of past and current relationships. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 1041-1055. Wertz, F. J. (2005). Phenomenological research methods for counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 52, 167-177. Appendix Childhood Experience Questionnaire (modified) (Ferguson & Dacey, 1997) Please answer the following questions by circling or writing the answer in the appropriate space Age: _________ Sex: F M The following questions are facultative: Status: Single Married Separated Divorced Union Number of children: 0 1 2 3 4 or more Ethnicity: Caucasian African-American Asian Latino Other: ___________ Sexual orientation: Heterosexual Homosexual Bisexual Other: ___________ Please circle the response that most accurately reflects how often your parents engaged in the following behavior during your childhood. 1. Grounded you or revoked certain privileges as a form of punishment for something you did wrong. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 2. Spanked you. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 3. Hit or beat you with an object such as a belt, switch, or paddle. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 4. Used a method of punishment that left you with cuts, bruises, broken bones, bums or some other injury. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 5. When answering the above questions, which parent were you referring to? (Other = stepparent, guardian, mother's boyfriend, etc.) Mother Father Both parents Other: ___________ 6. How old were you when these behaviors occurred? You may circle more than one age period. If the behaviors occurred throughout your entire childhood, then circle 0-17. 0-3 4-7 8-12 13-17 0-17 Please circle the response that most accurately reflects how often your parents engaged in the following behavior during your childhood. 7. Showed an interest in you by attending your school activities, sports activities, helped you with special projects, etc. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 8. Told you they were proud of you or told you they loved you. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 9. Made fun of you or intentionally humiliated you in public. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 10. Belittled your abilities or accomplishments, insulted you, called you negative names, ridiculed or degraded you. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 11. Threatened to physically harm you (without actually doing so), threatened to kill you, or threatened to abandon you. Never Rarely Sometimes Often 12. How often did you feel that you were the parent in your family? Never Rarely Sometimes Often 13. When answering the above questions, which parent were you referring to? Mother Father Both parents Other: ___________ 14. How old were you when these behaviors occurred? (0-17 = entire childhood) 0-3 4-7 8-12 13-17 0-17 15. In your opinion, do you feel that as a child you were ever Physically Abused? YES NO Sexually Abused? YES NO Psychologically Abused? YES NO Read More