Evolution of the American Presidential Elections - Essay Example

Evolution of the American Presidential Elections

Introduction

In the 228 years since the first American presidential elections were held, the presidential election process has undergone significant evolution and changes. These elections were held under the new constitution that was completed in 1787 and saw George Washington win the presidency by a landslide. Before these elections, the United States operated under the 1781 Articles of Confederation that gave the Confederation Congress the powers to run the national government. This national government was divided into several executive departments and was headed by a ceremonial chairperson rather than a Chief Executive. The electoral system in place allowed each state to select the same number of electors as their representatives in Congress. Under this system, each elector would have two votes with the majority winner becoming president and the runner-up taking the position of Vice President and was the beginning of the Electoral College selection process. During this first election, all 69 electors cast their first vote for Washington while their second vote were divided among ten other candidates from among who John Adams became the winner. This amendment was ratified in 1804 and changed the voting requirements compelling electors to cast unique votes for both the presidency and the vice presidency. There were also no political parties to speak of during these elections as candidates were categorized as either Federalist or Anti-Federalist depending on their stance on the ratification of the constitution. Washington’s overwhelming victory can be attributed to the fact that although these two factions had different ideologies and beliefs, they were not political parties in the true sense of the word. These elections were further complicated by the young nation’s sectional separation that divided the North from the South.

Evolution of the Presidential Selection Process

Although the founding fathers wanted to develop a system where all power resided with the people, this created the possibility of chaos and disorder not to mention the high logistical challenges that it would create. To avoid these challenges and problems, they developed an indirect presidential election process under Article II that created the Electoral College and the intricate set of rules that guide how the electorate goes about their activities. The electoral process was further complicated by the increasing roles of political parties in subsequent elections in 1796 and 1800, which significantly complicated their results. The 12th Amendment was passed to recognize the increasing role of political parties in the process by loosening the rules a little (Pika and Maltese, 2013). The nomination process of their various political parties is then determined presidential candidates although parties of incumbent presidents usually do not go through this process if the president is seeking a second term. The presidential nomination process involves two main events, primaries and caucuses, both of which take place in the states. The rules governing these processes vary from state to state and are determined by the party committees of each political party. A candidate secures his or her party’s nomination ticket if he or she can garner the backing of the most delegates before the national convention of his or her party.

Primaries are much like the traditional voting processes where eligible voters go to polling stations to vote for their candidate of choice. Votes are cast through secret balloting where a voter makes his decision in the privacy of a voting booth then places his voting ticket into a collection bin for tallying after the voting process is completed. Caucuses are a lot like conventions bringing together the delegates of political parties together in a local meeting place for the determination of the candidate to be awarded their backing. The voting process here is also as diverse as the political parties and states, but they are distinctly more public with attendees engaging in open deliberations and discussions. Caucuses can have many voting sessions depending on the number of stalemates they come across. A delegate refers to the representatives who are eligible to cast votes at the national convention of their party. Caucuses and primaries are divided into two types; binding caucuses and primaries are those in which the votes of successful candidates are legally assured to particular candidates at the party’s national convention. Non-binding caucuses and primaries are those where successful candidates are not legally obliged to vote for particular candidates for their parties national conventions. Open contests, on the other hand, are eligible to all voters regardless of their political affiliations while closed contests are only open to bona fide candidates of the party holding them. Candidates that win state contents are known as pledged delegates because their votes are guaranteed to a particular candidate. Unpledged or super delegates are independent to vote for any candidate and are comprised of former and current party leaders and officials.

Washington set the two-term precedent in 1796 when he declined to contest for a third term in office allowing Adams to take the helm with Jefferson clinching the vice presidency with three votes shy of the winner. Increasing political party involvement in the electoral process led to a catastrophic failure of the developing process as electors were torn between casting their votes for the president and their party resulting in 36 stalemates. This tie was broken by the House of Representatives declaring Jefferson president and Burr his second in command. The 12th Amendment of 1804 was passed to avoid a repeat of this fiasco by introducing separate ballots for the presidency and vice presidency. 1831 saw the first national convention being held, by the Anti-Masonic Party, to select their presidential candidate. The presidential inauguration was moved up from March to January through the 20th Amendment. The two-term precedent was broken when Roosevelt won his third office term in 1944 prompting Congress to start working on the “Lame duck” amendment in 1947. This amendment was intended to legally and officially limit the presidential term to two four-year terms. 1947 also saw the passing of the Presidential Succession Act that clearly detailed the succession line, after the vice president, to the presidency. The 22nd amendment was ratified in 1951 officially limiting presidents to two four-year terms.

In 1957, the 25th amendment was passed detailing procedures to be followed in case the president is incapacitated, or the vice president’s position is left vacant. The 25th Amendment was first used in 1973 when Nixon nominated Ford to replace the retired Agnew. It was invoked for a second time a year later when Ford nominated Rockefeller to replace his as vice president. The Supreme Court ruled that the president, and indeed former holders of that position, had total immunity from any liability brought on by his official acts or others during the commission of his duties and responsibilities in the 1982 case of Nixon and Fitzgerald. The incapacitation provision of the 25th Amendment was first exercised in 1985 when the then vice president, Bush, assumed the presidency in an acting capacity as Reagan underwent surgery. Congress passed legislation in 1997 limiting the Secret Service protection of former heads of state and their families to 10 years after they leave office breaking a precedent that had seen former presidents, their spouses and children under 16 years of age enjoy Secret Service protection until the death of the president. The Supreme Court was again embroiled in the election process in 2000 when it invalidated the Florida vote recount between Bush and Gore on grounds that it was unconstitutional. In 2001, the annual presidential salary was doubled from $200,000 to $400,000 after 32 years. A year later, the incapacitation provision was invoked again when vice president Cheney was briefly given the presidency when Bush underwent a medical procedure under general anesthetic. Cheney took the reins of the presidency again only five years later when Bush had to undergo another medical procedure. President Obama signed back the legislation guaranteeing himself, his predecessors and successors lifetime Secret Service protection in 2013.

Causes of these changes. Before 1787, the United States did not have a president and was governed by Congress; a system that effectively put power in the hands of a few contrary to the underpinnings of democracy. To restore this power back to the masses, the framers of the Constitution created provisions for the election of a president through popular vote. The founding fathers made provisions for elections to be done through delegates to maintain law and order during presidential elections in the then young and still volatile republic. This system was sufficient in the first few presidential elections since there were no political parties involved in the process as we have today. By 1800, political parties had taken root in America and had a tremendous influence on the electoral process. This unprecedented increase in political party involvement brought with it numerous challenges and problems that threatened to tear the fabric of American democracy. Delegates were torn between casting their votes for the president and aligning themselves with their parties resulting in confusion and chaos that saw the delegate’s reaches a stalemate 36 times. The House of Representatives had to come in to declare a winner, which did not go down well with the candidates, their parties or the public. The 12th Amendment was added to ensure oversight of the increasing involvement of political parties in the presidential and deed all American elections. The inauguration dates were brought forward by two months, from March to January to ensure continuity of government functions since the budget is prepared for the first week of January and the first week of February.

As the new republic developed, so did the roles and responsibilities of its president and the executive. The electoral system needed to change to accommodate the new mandates that also revolutionized the way candidates carry out their campaigns and source for funds. Parties started carrying out elaborate campaigns and lobbying activities to increase the popularity of their candidates to the masses. People began actively contributing towards candidates whose agenda favored their interests economically, socially or politically. Although increased funding from the public made it possible for presidential candidates and their parties to carry out successful and elaborate campaigns, they also significantly reduced their powers to act independently and objectively. To increase accountability and awareness, several bills have been passed both limiting campaign contribution amounts and providing oversight over their sources and usage. The two world wars and the civil war also significantly influenced the changes in the presidential election process. Presidents had to show strength and make decisions, which were hard but necessary to ensure the safety and protection of their citizens and their property. The two international wars increased the need for the country to foster alliances and partnerships with foreign nations and changed the qualifications for the presidency. This period also saw the precedent of two terms being broken as Roosevelt held the nation’s top seat for four consecutive terms. This prompted the “Lame duck” amendment that shortened this period to two terms.

The diversity of both the American people and their vast geographical coverage also necessitated changes in the presidential electoral process. Whereas early conventions were limited, by the low level of communication and transportation that highly increased the risks of election tampering and rigging, the electoral process evolved with as more tools making communication and transport easier were developed. Increasing innovations in information and technology have also facilitated the changes in the presidential elections process. Candidates and their parties can now engage more freely with voters through the various media channels available. Social media has also enhanced the interaction of the presidency and the masses by providing an avenue for the masses to air their views on how and what they feel the government should be doing for them. Presidential debates have also taken a center stage in the process as opponents are pitted against each other in a game of wits and strategies. This gives voters the chance to know their presidential aspirants and their policies and helps them when voting for their state representatives who will then go on to represent them in the selection of the president.

Changes in the Role of the Presidency. The role of the president in American politics has undergone significant changes since the inauguration of Washington in 1787 to the place it is today. The framers of the constitution had Washington in mind when they created the stipulation for a Commander-in-Chief since he was a celebrated war hero and a beloved countryman. They, however, had reservations about giving one individual executive power for fear they would turn into tyrants and destroy their budding democracy. Therefore, the president was given enough powers that could be effectively perfect the actions of Congress but not so much that he could overrun and overrule them. His roles were also limited to a response to emergencies especially those involving other nations. This move was meant to keep the bulk of the national power in Congress, which represented the voice of the people. The first 50 years of the American democracy relied on caucuses for presidential nominations, which made president candidates highly dependent on his party’s representatives in Congress. Due to the high power that these party representatives had, changes to the system started in 1830 with the aim of curtailing the tyranny these representatives were perceived of having. With the institution of conventions to select party presidential nominees, the new system opened up the nomination process to more public participation and gave the president more autonomy from his party members who could have before held him at ransom.

During the periods between 1840- 1900, most presidents exercised very little of their increased powers opting to take the most passive role of implementing decisions passed by Congress. This culture earned the 19th-century presidents the moniker “Clerks in Chief” since they exercised very little initiative and control of their immense powers. However, several early presidents were assertive in the execution of the duties of their office. Washington set the tone for which his successors have carried themselves and executed their duties and responsibilities. His character of humility, boldness, honor and statesmanship are embodied into the persona of the president even today. Jefferson, on the other hand, went rogue one too many times as he acted without Congressional consent. His most notable unilateral act as president has to be the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 with France that saw the young republic double its territorial borders for just $15 million. Andrew Jackson set history by being the first president to appeal directly actively to voters to drum up support for his bid as head of state. As the country developed and its populations increased, and the global atmosphere underwent significant transformation, the roles of the presidency also had to evolve along with them to ensure the continuity and prosperity of the budding country. Case in point is the reinstatement of the lifetime Secret Service protection of former presidents and their families probably due to the increase in global insecurity and terrorism that makes them high priority targets due to their understanding of security and intelligence protocols and strategies.

Although the presidential electoral process has undergone significant transformations throughout the years, it could still do with further changes. The electorate needs to be given more power to elect their president directly since the current system sometimes results in the loser of the popular vote carrying the day like was the case in 2000. Giving voters a more direct involvement in the process would also ensure that candidates would give all states and regions due consideration since they would be unable to know with certainty which ones would be in their favor and which ones were sway states. Candidates would have to be more creative and innovative resulting in a livelier and open debate about the issues. The presidency could also do with a bit more autonomy with regards to foreign policies and strategies. With the increasing globalization and other global issues, it is becoming increasingly important that the government acts fast. If the president has more authority to act autonomously in such instances, it will improve relations between America and her neighbors effectively making it easier for her to get global backing on initiatives such as global warming and terror. The process could also do with an enhancement of accountability and oversight to ensure that candidates deliver on their promises to the electorate. Presidents who take office and do not deliver on their mandates and promises disillusion voters and make many refrain from casting their votes effectively resulting in the breakdown of democracy and the democratic process. With the technology available today, the electoral body can develop structures and systems to enable the public to determine the face of the presidency.

Reference

Pika, J. A., and Maltese, J. A. 2013. The Politics of the Presidency, Revised 8th Edition. Washington: CQ Press.