Structural Impediments to the Election of Women in the United States - Literature review Example

United States political arena xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Structural impediments to the election of women in United States xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Name xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Course Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Course instructor Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Date submitted Structural impediments to the election of women in United States Over years the political arena especially in United States has been considered to be a male dominated arena. Although, in the last fifty years or so women have run for political offices in large numbers but it is quite evidence that they have not achieve the same parity as men. Research indicates that in the mean percentage of women representative in political offices is 15% which is very low compared to men. According to Fox & Courtney (2001, p411), further research continues to indicate that there are certain factors that have greatly contributed to this percentage and which need attention especially in the United States. These factors include; socioeconomic dynamics such as participating in high levels of fiscal growth, party policies such as gender quotas and incumbency. Today, America women are fighting for this political position and it is quite evidence that they performance is just as well as that of their male counterparts (Fox & Courtney 2001, p415). Conventional wisdom that is derived from understanding women indulgence in political arena shows which states that congressional election have resulted into gender neutral results. It is quite evidence that if women have an advantage and a big turnover in equal representation of power then this implies that the issue of underrepresentation would resolve itself. Fox (2000, p420) asserts that gender imbalance within political system has attracted a number of scholars where they have formed research on various political behaviors displayed by both men and women. The interest displayed by most women in fighting for governmental position has been attributed by four main related factors. These factors are mainly; effort by women to rise into political participation, efforts created by contemporary feminists’ movements so as to involve women in government decision making, acceptance by women to study politics as legitimate academic studies and finally, great commitment exhibited by women to expand their knowledge on politics so as to create an equal ground with their counterparts (Fox 2000, p424). It is due to this and many other reasons that this study will widely focus on finding out if there is need to modify the conventional wisdom about the structural impediments to election of women to high office in the United States or the already existing structural impediments are in favor of electing of women in United States. In order to argue this study more comprehensively, there is need to discuss on factors enhances or hinders women representation in governing bodies, mechanisms that should be placed to increase women participation, leadership and representation, conditions that will make women more effective in decision making processes and finally the impact of equal women participation in decision making. Before a nation political arena is able to accept conventional wisdom that indicates that there is no gender biasness in United States electoral process, it is quite essential that gender dynamics are investigated (Duerst-Lahti 1998, p23). Evidently, most women occupy few positions in house of commons due to political sphere discrimination that is widely portrayed by men. Since the change in cultural appearance of women as the weaker sex, today in United States women have sought political seats and several of them have won election to a public office. Evolution in culture, structural barriers and political ambitions has widely contributed in measurable varying degrees to genders disparities within US political institutions (Duerst-Lahti 1998, p43). It is quite evidence that a truly represented and democratic government cannot be establish without great participation of women in a nation political process. Political participation is referred as actions of individuals who want to create an influence of politics and the government in general. Participation within political arena can be termed to either be convectional or unconventional (The Bottleneck, Women Candidates 2000, p45). Various political scientist scholars argue that individuals participates in politics for reasons such as influencing broad public policy and support ones nations and oneself. In a democratic political arena, it is expected that women should be given equal treatment just like their male counterparts. The need to incorporate women into United States political arena came into being in 1992, when feminists’ organizations engaged in launching campaigns that would see more women integrated into political world. Although this process has been slow it is quite evidence that today women within the united states House of Commons is more as compared to earlier years (The Bottleneck, Women Candidates, 2000, p56). Research indicates that competition in United States is quite unique compared to other nations since it is mainly dominated by individuals as opposed to the nation political parties. This has created a structural change where women individualism within the arena expands as opposed to use of political parties and national issues (David 2002, p32). Women heading top offices have realized that there should embrace entrepreneurial system whereby there should greatly focus on developing their own feelings. Parties should create structural impediments by use of conventional wisdom where an interested candidate regardless of the gender has the ability of establishing coalition strengths, create great campaign organizations and able to raise fund to fund the whole process. Due to increased globalization, women are able to get education where they incorporate technological changes which are termed as positive effects when in political positions (David 2002, p45). It is quite important to develop a framework whereby recruitment of women into public offices. There are still structural impediments such as socioeconomic background of women, current existing political institutional arrangement and political socialization and mobilization of experiences. Matland (1998, p105) asserts that, for one to be considered to be political leaders he is first likely to be a member of society and is expected to be characterized with high social status that is often measured through once educational background and financial assets owned. It should be understood that today membership in a particular designed stratum doesn’t determine an ultimate entry into united states political arena but rather it greatly determine who is the most eligible for various designated governmental hierarchical positions (Matland 1998, p123). It is for this reason that there is need for conventional wisdom modification whereby women are not elected into United States political arena on the basis from a dominant social stratum but rather on a politically active stratum. It is quite evidence that the field exhibited by American politics has been particularly one rich research because of women desire to engage in politics. Further, there has been great level of men biasness on women engaging in politics where by women were perceived to perform sticking and licking work whereas their men plan and strategizes. High level of education has widely contributed in equipping women with great ability of replacing their traditional nature of home purchasing to that of performing financial balances so as to support political women candidates and parties (Mansbridge 1999, p628). It is from this issue that women are grappling with the need of modifying conventional wisdom about structural impediments to election of women within United States. Based on socioeconomic status, it is essential to modify the thought that women should only be left under the family structural as opposed to political grounds. Researches indicate that the question revolving around socioeconomic status is that of whom women are expected to combine family roles to that of politics (Mansbridge 1999, p630). Women fighting for political power in the United States are widely been affected by the desirable political parties. According to Lawless & Richard (2005, p76), parties leaders either from democrats or republicans have neither broadly accepted that women can be political appropriate candidates nor hold office responsibility. This perceptual view need to be corrected so as to encourage more women to run in bigger political positions. Most male perceived that voters react negatively when female nominees are asking for votes. It is for this reason that there is need for structural changes within United States parties to increase women chances in party nominations by so doing women will automatically win in the sense that they would have developed a strong incumbent or combination for high political positions. It is quite evidence that if women have an advantage and a big turnover in equal representation of power then this implies that the issue of underrepresentation would resolve itself (Lawless & Richard 2005, p54). Further, it is quite important to modify conventional wisdom about structural impediments in electing women in United States political arena, so as to address widely the issue of underrepresentation of women which is highly causing problems for the democratic theory. This will be effective since it will change the perspective of people on how women legislature handle political issues both in terms of outcomes and processes as compared to their male counterparts. It is essential to understand that this representation should not only focus on numbers but rather on the policy affecting women (Smith & Richard 2001, p205). Structural changes will ensure that biasness in parties, media, voters and potential contributors is reduced. Political researchers have argued that women are underrepresented since few of them run for these legislature positions. There changes should be made through creating certain positions to be headed by women. It is quite symbolic that when more legislative positions are created it is obvious that there will be a conventional wisdom which will ensure that underrepresentation has dissipated. According to Seltzer (1997, p472), incumbency is one of major changes that are needed so as to create an advantage of election of women into legislative positions. It is evident that this change will ensure representatives who run for reelection are done away with so as to ensure proper circulation of new political elite. Women just like men should be given equal positions whereby they are also allowed the power of reelection. By so doing it will be obvious that women will be equally advantage incumbent candidates essence compared to men. Further elimination of incumbency can be achieved through imposition of terms set aside for legislative limits (Seltzer 1997, p45). Although, term limits are recent phenomenon within the united states it is considered as a change that have resulted in reducing incumbency thus promoting women legislature in doing substantial work. Findings further have indicated that since the term limits structural changes, women are now gathering a lot of influence in their election in legislative positions. Research indicate that control of incumbency in US have resulted to reduction of widespread bias during electoral polls. Modification of conventional wisdom especially on structural impediments such as cultural, institutional and socioeconomic factors is very essential in influencing women representation in various nation setting within United States (Sanbonmatsu 2002, p791). Changes within electoral rules are fundamental in ensuring that women are able to get more influences (Norris 1994, p76). This widely indicates that when candidates are elected by way of Proportional Representation (PR) where two seats are allocated, then there is greater possibility that there will greater gender diversity as compared to one which is a candidate who is elected by way of single membership district. This happens because when changes are done on structural impediments, the PR system ensures that a room is created in the sense that both women and men win the seats. Unlike in PR, in single member district system, the chance of winning is mainly on a zero sum game where it can result to one individual winning the seats (Sanbonmatsu 2002, p790). United States need to focus on ensuring its electoral process embraces the PR system so as to influence the election of women into legislative seats. It is quite evidence that mobilization and socialization changes are needed in defining individuals who are part of a dominated social stratum to shift and become members of those who are of politically active stratum. This argument is widely focused on policies that are to favor gender equality in political arena. Further mobilization and socialization changes ensure that women are taught to be more political ambitious during their childhood as opposed to now where they are becoming interested in politics when they are already adults (Rahn 1993, p475). Clearly, improving on ones personality broadly assists in the mobilization of women political interests. Importance accredited to mobilization and socialization is that it establishes a certain interest in the political arena thus maximizing on once probability of being recruited into bigger circles of political activism. Research indicates that movement from a dominant social stratum into that which is politically active occur mainly by four types of activities namely; mass movement activities, occupational, direct political activities and civil organization activities (Rahn 1993, p480). Engaging women in civic organization activities is another conventional wisdom modification about structural impediment to election of women into United States. Women within these activities when asked said that they had worked in civil organization for around five to six years before being elected in various legislative positions. It is at this position in civil organizations that most women in the united state governing body decide to engage in politics so as to serve their communities more effectively (Rahn 1993, 484). Women should also focus on using their positions in civil organizations by using them as spring boards towards attaining political leadership. The idea that women cannot be able to raise enough funds should be rubbed off by United States party for an effective gender equalized political arena. Most men perceive women to be weaker thus cannot be able to obtain the money needed for their campaign. If changes are made on this notation this can be a strategic aspects which creates self-fulfilling prophesy to women. It is important to note that civil institutions play a vital role in supporting women in governmental decision making (Pearson & Eric 2004, p65). Once in office, it has been further noted that women greatly supports their advancement in ensuring that equality of gender is achieved especially in policy making grounds. Further, contribution made by civil societies assists in the development of a cultural political arena with the United States that is favorable to genders equality. Engaging women in budgeting processes ensures that policy commitments are established in a way where policies are matched to allocation of resources. In conclusion it is very true to state that there is need to modify the conventional wisdom about the structural impediments to election of women to high office in the United States. By way of comparing women success between electoral parties it is quite evidence to say women have brought positive changes within united states political arena. Increase in the number of women in Republican Party has resulted to great ideological conservatism within its party system. Control in incumbency has ultimately created a competitive arena where individuals are not elected because of parties but through their personal capability. Conventional wisdom that is derived from understanding women indulgence in political arena shows which states that congressional election have resulted into gender neutral results. It is therefore recommendable that women should be included in electoral system discussions reforms such as representation, proportional representation, electoral thresholds and boundary delimitations that they are likely to impact on changes of gender equality. References Norris, P. 1994. “The impact of the electoral system on election of women to national legislatures.” In Different Roles, Different Voices, eds. Marianne Githens, Pippa Norris and Joni Lovenduski. New York: Harper Collins. Pearson, K & Eric M. 2004. “Strategic Differences: The Gender Dynamics of Congressional Candidacies, 1982-2002.” Paper presented at the Midwest Political Science Association conference, Chicago, Illinois. Rahn, W. 1993. “The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing About Political Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37(2): 472-496. Sanbonmatsu, K. 2002. “Political Parties and the Recruitment of Women to State Legislatures.” The Journal of Politics 64 (3): 791-809. Seltzer, R. 1997. Sex as a Political Variable: Women as Candidates and Voters in U.S. Elections. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. Smith, E & Richard L. 2001. “A Research Note: The Electoral Fortunes of Women Candidates for Congress,” Political Research Quarterly 54(1):205-21. Lawless, J & Richard, F. 2005. It Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mansbridge, J. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes’.” Journal of Politics 61(3):628-57. Matland, R.1998. “Women’s Representation in National Legislatures: Developed and Developing Countries.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 23(1):109-25. David C. 2002. “Women as Candidates in Congressional Elections” in Women Transforming Congress, ed. Cindy Simon Rosenthal. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Duerst-Lahti, G. 1998. “The Bottleneck, Women Candidates,” in Thomas, Sue and Clyde Wilcox, eds. Women and Elective Office: Past, Present, and Future. Oxford University Press Fox, R. 2000. “Gender and Congressional Elections,” in S. Tolleson-Rinehart and J. Josephson, eds. Gender and American Politics, Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. Fox, R & Courtney, F. 2001. “Gender and the Decision to Run for Office,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 26: 411-35. Read More