Political Development in Modern China - Research Paper Example

Political Development in Modern China Introduction For the past fifty or so years, China has maintained a close-door policy in its foreign and international relations. It has only been in recent years when China has been slowly opening its doors and opportunities in the international arena. And this move has so far benefited its economy and its relations with its neighbors and with the rest of North America and Europe. Since September of 1949, the Common Program of the Chinese People’s Consultative Conference (CPCC) has served as its provisional constitution. The document has made provisions for the basic principles of China’s foreign policy which include its policies on guaranteeing independence, freedom and territorial integrity of the state; on supporting protracted world peace; fostering friendly cooperation among peoples of all countries in the world; and oppose imperialist policies of aggression and war. This paper shall consider the following areas of discussion in China’s foreign policy: maintaining independence and safeguarding national sovereignty; opposing hegemonism and safeguarding world peace; upholding the five principles of peaceful coexistence; strengthening the solidarity of the developing countries, and opposing imperialism and colonialism; improving relations with developed countries to promote common progress; and removing external interference, promoting China’s reunification. These elements all comprise China’s foreign policy. An analysis of these areas and their impact on China’s international relations shall be undertaken in order to ensure a scholarly and a thorough understanding of the current subject matter. This analysis shall also take into consideration the applicability of these policies in the past and in the current age of globalization. This paper aims to assess China’s policies from a historical context and based on the current existing policies as imposed by developed countries and the current global economic leaders. Discussion Maintaining Independence and Safeguarding National Sovereignty China is a country which has experienced an extensive history of imperialistic rule. From its earliest Xia Dynasty to its rule under the different emperors like Qin Shihuang, Hanwadi, Li Shimin, Kangxi from the Qin, Han, Tang, to the Quing dynasties respectively, China has been ruled for over 5000 years under imperialistic governance (History of China “About”). As the Qing Dynasty was starting to lose its influence and power over China, the Republic of China was starting to gain power and was starting to shake free of imperial domination. However, the Nationalists who took over the rule of China did not fare well in terms of defending and providing for the needs of the people (Hearne “Chinese History”). The Chinese Communist Party was actually doing better in ruling the country and after the Second World War the People’s Republic of China was now recognized by other countries as the main and legitimate ruling authority in China (Hearne “Chinese History”). This history of imperial rule in China also represented a time when it implemented an open-door policy with other countries. Treaties like that of Nanking represented a humiliating time in the history of China. “This treaty opened the era of unequal treaties. The unequal treaties were imposed by Western powers on China in the 19th century” (Chaurasia, p. 70). And these experiences under imperialistic rule and in its relations with other countries provided the basis for China’s support for the respect for independence and sovereignty. Since 1949, China has emphasized on the independence of its country and its internal affairs; and it has emphasized on the importance of being free of the influence and dictates of other outside factors and other countries (People’s Daily “China”). In terms of international affairs, their policy or stand is based on what is right and wrong for their citizens and for the general interests of their country. It also sets forth firmly that it does not respond and give in to threats and pressure from other countries when it comes to its international relations (People’s Daily, “China”). China’s policy is also on cherishing its rights and on respecting the rights and independence of other countries. It also supports the concept that all countries should be equal regardless of their size, their riches, and their political clout (People’s Daily, “China”). This belief and support for independence has prompted China to emphasize that it will not enter into any alliance with any major powers or group of countries, nor will it establish any military cooperation or join other countries in an arms race or military expansion (People’s Daily, “China”). Deng Xiaoping’s encounters with United States and with other Western countries during his years as China’s leader led him to the firm outlook that China must maintain independence in its decisions and in its policies. Sanctions and pressure from these Western nations have caused China much hardship and humiliation during Deng’s regime. This prompted him to state that: “One special feature of China’s development is that it has proceeded under international sanctions for most of the forty years since the founding of the People’s Republic. If there is nothing else we’re good at, we’re good at withstanding sanctions…China will never accept interference by other countries in its internal affairs” (Deng, as cited by Zhao, p. 126). China stands firm by these beliefs. An application of this principle was seen after the Tiananmen Square incident when they placed a great deal of emphasis on their sovereignty. Their emphasis on independence was mostly due to the fact that they did not want interference from the United States in their internal affairs. Their emphasis on independence was also seen in China’s “half-hearted endorsement of the Gulf War, and the causes underlying it, [and it] came to define China’s stance on intervention” (Johnston & Ross, p. 223). During the 1990s, China’s gradual attempts at participating in international politics were still limited and on an observer status. In the UN Trace Supervision in 1990 and the Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission in 1991, China sent its observers. It also sent a large contingent of observers in the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia, and again in the UN Mission in Mozambique in order to assist in the ceasefire efforts (Johnston & Ross, p. 224). As a member of the UN Security Council, it has remained focused on the principles of independence and in the avoidance of interference in other country’s affairs. It chose to abstain in the vote of the UN for using all necessary means to neutralize the situation in Bosnia. It initially supported the UN in its Security Council initiatives in Somalia, but when the operations became prolonged and bogged down, it became “increasingly critical of the mission’s intrusive nature, and China abstained on each of the subsequent resolutions designed to provide multilateral forces in Somalia with a broader mandate” (Johnston & Ross, p. 224). China also did not favor the UN and US-led operation in Haiti because it believed that such actions might create a critical example in international politics – one that violates the basic UN principles and the principles of international law on independence and sovereignty (Johnson & Ross, p. 224). In general, China’s position has been to go against the West’s habit of interfering in the internal affairs of other countries when internal crises are involved. However, in many instances, their position has shifted towards a semblance of participation and cooperation in international relations. In its very essence, China still remains, to this day, very guarded about its independence and sovereignty. Opposing Hegemonism and Safeguarding World Peace China opposes hegemonism and emphasizes on securing world peace. China recognizes the fact that the main goal of most Chinese people and most citizens of the world is to maintain peace and to eliminate wars (People’s Daily, “China”). When the Second World War ended, the US and the Soviet Union became obsessed in gaining domination over the other. This started the era of the Cold War which threatened world security and peace. China opposed, from the very start, such moves for world domination and it actually emphasized on the reduction of arms and military troops (People’s Daily “China”). In 1985, it made a strong bid against hegemonism by reducing one million troops within 2 years; it also became a signatory of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1992 (People’s Daily “China”). These were clear efforts made in order to prevent the domination of one country over another and to help in the bid for world peace. Five years after founding the People’s Republic of China, Mao Zedong pointed out that the policy for China was to “unite the world and win the support of all our friends abroad in the struggle to build a great socialist country, defend world peace and advance the cause of human progress” (as cited by People.com, “About China”). The focus of China in its development then focused on its economy and in the regime of Deng Xiaoping which followed in the 1970s, there was an emphasis on opposing hegemonism and protecting world peace; it also detailed the purpose of China’s diplomacy which is on striving for peace in the international scene and an environment conducive around China (People.com, “About China”). After more than 50 years as an independent socialist country, China is still a strong supporter of world peace and a strong oppositionist of hegemonism. It believes that “countries should settle their disputes and conflicts peacefully through consultation and not to resort to the use of threat or force; no country should interfere in the internal affairs of other countries under any pretext, let along using its strength to invade bully or overthrow other countries” (People.com “About China”). And in the past 50 years, China has never imposed its socialist system and ideologies on other countries; just as it will never allow other countries to impose their political systems and ideologies on itself (People.com “About China”). China’s opposition on hegemony has also been its basis for its opposition and its limited support for the US and the UN-led armed peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East and in other violence-ridden countries. Although China is considered a powerful economy and a major country in international politics, it actually considers itself a minor country in terms of its efforts to deter the war and safeguard peace (Suganuma, p. 26). Its military troops are minimal in number and it is not actively pursuing the development of a strong military force. When President Bush imposed its doctrines and principles on the Iraq-Kuwait War, China strongly opposed such doctrines, claiming that, “the international order is not…an abstract existence beyond every country’s interests; instead it reflects the change in the balance of power in the world and the interest demand of different forces” (Suganuma, p. 27). In the process of opposing hegemony, China is bound to promote international policies with their distinct Chinese characteristics and which reflect their own political agenda (Suganuma, p. 27). And by opposing hegemony and promoting world peace, China has also managed to be the voice of the smaller Third World countries by maintaining its traditional Confucian principles of li in the present world politics. Upholding the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence The five principles of peaceful coexistence were conceptualized in line with the current structure of a multipolar world. These five principles include: respect to sovereignty (most basic principle of international relations; mutual non-aggression (no use of threat of arms and armed threat in international relations); non-interference in each other’s international affairs (guarantee each country’s right to take care of its own internal affairs and to prevent interference by all means; equality and mutual benefit (political equality, economic equality, cooperation, mutual benefit, and supplementing each other’s needs); and peaceful coexistence (seeking common interests, reserving differences, respecting each other, maintaining friendly cooperation, and living in harmony regardless of the differences in systems and ideologies (People’s Daily, “China”). Many changes have been seen in the world since the 1990s and the end of the Cold War has also ended the domination of two superpowers. This has made the world more multipolar. In meeting the goals of a multipolar world, China has managed to adhere to the concepts of peaceful, stable, just, and a rational international order (People’s Daily “China”). It has managed to align its principles with the UN Charter by seeking peace and development within its borders (People’s Daily “China”). China has a belief that the five principles of peaceful coexistence are the basic principles in the development of modern international law (Tzou, p. 33). These five principles are also principles which have to be followed in order to ensure that all people live in peace with each other. In the 50 years since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, it has managed to avoid interfering in the independence of other countries. The country has a firm belief that obstructing in the recovery and unification of a country’s territory is considered a violation of the first principle of peaceful coexistence. Hence it views the US and other countries’ interference in the Tibet and the Taiwan issue as a violation of the first principle of the UN Charter (Tzou, p. 33). Imperialists can sometimes be aggressive in their efforts to dominate and they may consequently violate the principles of peaceful coexistence. These imperialists will therefore not agree with efforts taken in establishing peaceful coexistence. These principles then, may seem to find difficult application in the Chinese context, however, China has taken major strides in ensuring that these principles are applied within its borders. Various manifestations of these efforts have already been seen throughout its 5 year history as a country. Strengthening Solidarity of the Developing Countries and Together Opposing Imperialism and Colonialism Most of the world’s developing countries are found in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. China has emphasized throughout the years that supporting the fair demands of developing countries and ensuring solidarity and cooperation among these countries is an international duty and responsibility (People’s Daily “China”). And China has proven that it has been supportive of these developing countries; whenever these countries have experienced aggression from other more powerful nations, it has been ready to extend its support. Leaders of developing countries actually consider China as a trusted ally and a reliable friend (People’s Daily, “China”). In line with this goal, China has also become an observer of the nonalignment movement and its relationship with the Seventy Seven Group and the South Pacific Forum has remained strong – sometimes even stronger – throughout the years (People’s Daily, “China”). China has also managed to establish good and healthy relations with these developing countries in the past decade. President Hu Jintao has pointed out four priority areas which need to be focused on in aid of stronger solidarity among developing countries. Including China, he focuses on four of these countries, namely, India, Brazil, South Africa, and Mexico (Wang “News”). In order to strengthen solidarity, China emphasizes that with the increasing ties in the international market, these countries are important nations in achieving global economic growth. Under such conditions, stronger coordination and consultation among these countries are needed in order to “minimize the impact of unfavorable factors and maintain the momentum and dynamism of the fast economic growth of the five as well as to make continued contribution to world economic development” (Wang “News”). Hu also emphasizes that efforts towards improving coordination and advancing South-South cooperation must be undertaken because by doing so developing countries can draw on each other’s strength and later achieve common development (Wang, “News”). He also points out that these five developing countries must push forward and implement reforms in international trade and development, to uphold their rights and interests, to improve their ability to handle risks and challenges, and to promote balanced and coordinated growth in the globalized economy (Wang, “News”). Hu also emphasizes on taking a long-term view and on promoting the North-South dialogue. For Hu, he believes that world economic progress cannot be achieved and maintained if developing countries remain backward. By working together, these countries can help “forge a new North-South partnership featuring equality, mutual benefit, cooperation, and win-win progress” (Wang, “News”). One of the most important policies which Hu has managed to emphasize for China and for developing countries is the importance of working together to shoulder responsibilities. By working together, it is possible to exert a positive influence on global affairs, to increase output and make a good contribution to the process of establishing a harmonious world and achieving prosperity (Wang, “News”). Hu emphasizes that developing countries, especially the five mentioned here can establish strong and cooperative relations with each other and such cooperation can eventually help meet the interest of people all over the world. He also believes that by meeting the goals of these five countries, a better economic status can be established for other countries as well. Improving Relations with Developed Countries to Promote Common Progress China has also taken on an active role in improving relations with developed countries in order to promote common progress. The creation of the diplomatic relations with France in 1964 was able to break the sanction imposed on China. In the 1970s, more changes in the global scene were seen and the United States adjusted its policy on China; and China too adjusted its policies on the United States (People’s Daily “China”). This successfully changed the relationship between these two countries and China was able to establish relations with other Western developed countries in the process. More changes in China’s foreign affairs soon followed. This relationship of cooperation was sustained in the years that followed and the years preceding the September 11 attacks. China’s support of the global war on terror was a result of the cooperative relations between the US and China. These two countries have similar interests and “with nearly $120 billion in two-way trade and substantial direct investment, each is of enormous importance to the other” (Liu, p. 5). China has also welcomed foreign investors since 1979. However many prohibitions in its trade policies turned off many investors. And still China was determined to improve its economic relations with developed countries by recognizing the need to implement a “reformed and clarified the laws governing foreign investment and generally sought to reduce the uncertainties that had bedeviled foreign businesses operating in China” (Liu, p. 91). In the 1990s, foreign investments in China went up to $81 billion and these investments have increased since the early 90s. China’s relationship with Russia has also been very supportive. And both countries have benefited in the investments they have made on each other. These foreign relations with developed countries have managed to ensure that China has a balanced and healthy relationship with not only the developing countries, but the developed nations as well. Removing External Interference, Promoting China’s Reunification Removing external interference and promoting China’s reunification has always been a controversial issue for China. It has also been the main critique of other democratic nations on China. Its ‘one-China policy’ has been disfavored by many countries because it allegedly violates the principles of democracy. But China contends that it is not a democratic country and it instead adheres to the principles of sovereignty and independence, and more importantly, of non-interference. Hong Kong and Macao have been considered territories of China since ancient times and China does not recognize unequal treaties which are imposed by imperialist countries (People’s Daily “China”). However, as far as both territories are concerned, China has always believed in the peaceful settlement of negotiations and issues. In order to implement China’s reunification, Deng Xiaoping set forth the concept of ‘one country, two systems’; this made it possible for China and the British government to reach an agreement after 22 rounds of talks and to formally sign the Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong which returned Hong Kong to the motherland (People’s Daily, “China”). The question of Macao was also settled through another treaty – this time, through the Joint Declaration on the Question of Macao. Taiwan is considered also a part of China’s territory; hence China strongly opposes the independence of Taiwan because it strongly opposes the idea of two-Chinas (People’s Daily “China”). China is working hard towards the settlement of issues with Taiwan and the reunification with their territory in order to finally realize the reunification of its territory. So far, the Taiwan issue remains to be an unsettled issue and will remain so until the efforts towards peaceful settlement are implemented. The Taiwan and the Tibet issues have been major points of contention against China, especially by the United States. Although the United States has registered its support for China’s one-China policy, China has pointed out how, on many occasions, the US has negated its position on China’s policy. The Taiwan Relations Act of 1979 did not sit well with China. They perceived this as “a virtual restoration of the diplomatic and military relationship with Taiwan that Washington had already agreed to give up as a precondition for upgraded Sino-American relations” (Roy, p. 142). And these agreements with Taiwan constitute one of the acts which China considers as interference with its sovereignty. They are also considered a violation of China’s one-China policy which it sets forth as a main part of its independent policy. Conclusion Since China gained its status as an independent state, it has made solid strides towards building strong relations with other countries. It has managed to maintain its independence and to safeguard its national sovereignty. Its history of imperialistic rule earned for it valuable lessons which it now applies in the form of policies on non-interference of other independent nations. It has also been firm on opposing hegemonism and on safeguarding world peace. Its efforts in the matter have ensured that it reduced its military arms and made more solid contributions towards world peace. It has also been upholding the five principles of peaceful coexistence, and it shows in the fact that it has managed to maintain peaceful relations with other countries. China has also managed to assist many developing countries and to help them strengthen their solidarity and cooperation with each other towards economic development. This relationship has also extended to developed nations which China has managed to relate well with in the past 50 years. 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