Abiotic Petroleum - Case Study Example

Insert Abiotic Petroleum This paper reviews the scientific theories of oil formation the biotic and abiotic theories. It seeks to compare the given theories. To uncover the origin of iron deposits and the tectonic setting of gas and oil fields also the Sedimentary sequence of rocks. Different extraction techniques of petroleum will be covered which include primary, secondary and enhanced recovery. Each technique can be used depending on the underground environment where the oil is deposited, characteristic of sedimentary rocks and depth. Environmental impact of abiotic petroleum will be studied. Finally, one will be able to know if abiotic theory of oil formation is more valid than the biotic oil formation theory “fossil-fuel” theory and if “peak oil” is really a challenge to be faced if oil is non-renewable as perceived by biotic oil formation theory. Since most countries depend on oil, they will ensure that they acquire ability to produce their own oil with or without the theories stated. Some states go to extend to war to defend their oil resources and their onells. Though the oil is required, commodity by all states the manufacturing, distribution and its use is dangerous to our environment. Disposal of wastes must be done correctly and during distribution correct cargo handling facilities must be used to avoid spillage to the water or soil surfaces. Correct manufacturing procedures must be followed to ensure emitted gasses are burned completely before release to the atmosphere. To avoid all these, a safer resource that will substitute petroleum has to be introduced, and countries encouraged using it instead. Keywords: Oil formation theories, abiotic petroleum, peak oil, biotic theory, tectonic setting, 1. Introduction Biotic oil formation theory (biogenic) and abiotic oil formation theory (biogenic or non-biogenic) are the two most theories with geological explanation of how oil was formed. Historically, crude oil was found by experimental methods in subsurface basins and other underground formations (Peters et al.). The biotic theory states that oil originated from organic matter remains while abiotic theory states that the same oil originates from inorganic matter through non-biological processes. Both theories are believed to be true since the final product for both is petroleum generation from biological as onell as non-biological matter (Robinson). Abiotic oil formation theory (AOF) was the first ever theory that claimed that oil resulted from deep carbon deposits that had been around longer than life on this planet and was discovered in the 16th century. A French chemist Marceline Berthelot described in his study that hydrocarbon was created by acid dissolution of steel in Europe (Walter). Mendeleev described that oil was created from the chemical reaction between water and iron carbide in the hot upper mantle in Russia.The abiotic oil formation theory was developed to enable production of oil reservoirs example in south Khylchuyu field and Sakhalin II field. Though there was evidence of oil creation, the theory was ignored at that time. The most neon version of abiotic oil formation states that oil is formed from non-biological processes that transpire deep within the looner mantle of the earth. After actual formation, oil infiltrates up through the porous rocks to fill the basins people tap to get oil. If this formation process is true, then the concept of “peak oil” as destined by biotic oil formation theory is challenged since this means that oil is renewable. Kennedy confidently affirms abiotic oil formation theory as ability of oil renewability he states “no reason to worry about and even less to plan for any predicted demise of the petroleum industry based upon a vanishing of petroleum reserves” (Kennedy 22) “Peak oil.” The concept perceives that world oil creation is certain to reach the maximum then irreparable degeneration will follow suit (Figure 1). Though abiotic oil formation theory confirms that oil is renewable “peak oil” is still a problem that one can face since rate of formation at present is faster than creation and fossil fuels are non-renewable and likely to be exhausted. One can only be safe if formation rate matches the rate of extraction (Bardi). 2. Background of the study First, one needs to understand essential science behind petroleum and its production. Oil is a molecule consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms known as hydrocarbons. Many hydrocarbons exist in the cosmos besides oil, but oil is by far the most famous. Petroleum/oil is known as crude oil before refining. Crude oil exists in liquid form in innate underground reservoirs. Crude oil remains liquid at atmospheric pressure is can be filtered to produce petroleum products including kerosene, petrol, diesel and jet fuels. Though scientists come to consensus on the importance, location and use of petroleum, they are still fighting over which is the theory that tells the truth of origin of petroleum; Biotic or abiotic oil formation theory. Biotic “fossil-fuel” theory by Thomas Gold states that organic matter buried in sediments decay into oil and gas after a very long period of time, the oil then is stored in the porous sedimentary rocks in the upper layer of the earth crust (Figure 2). Ancient plant remains and dead dinosaurs buried underneath and decayed over the long time is believed to have been fossilized into hydrocarbons mainly petroleum. Biotic theory is supported by the fact that carbon and hydrogen being the main contents of plant and animal organic matter, hydrocarbons are deposited in the sediments (Reilly, Carmel.). Nitrogen and porphyries which are blood derivatives in animals while in plants chlorophyll are found in all organic matter and are also found in petroleum meaning plant, and animal matter decomposed to form petroleum. Traces of porphyrins in petroleum mean that aerobic condition occurred under reduced environment since porphyrins are oxidized and decomposed completely under aerobic condition. Porphyrins can only survive at temperatures between 300oF (141oC) and 392oF (200oC), and this is true of the formation of petroleum under low temperature. Finally, recent oil discoveries in Pliocene sediments clearly show that the formation of petroleum is less than 1MM years, and this supports biotic theory in some way. Abiotic oil formation theory is still the most defended theory despite the small mishaps; existence of methane on comets, meteors, and other inert substances is an indication that organic matter is not necessary for oil production. Presence of metal in oil, relationship between hydrocarbons and helium and availability of oil deposits in large-scale structures unlike irregular deposits is a true claim that oil come from non-biological process involving inorganic matter rather than plant, animal matter. Carbon present in the magma underneath the crust reacts with hydrogen to form methane, as onell as a bundle of other hydrocarbons mainly alkanes. Granite and silicon-based rocks act as a catalyst to speed up the reaction without actual involvement in the process. Under thrilling conditions of heat and pressure, iron oxide, calcium carbonate, and water can be converted into methane producing hydrocarbons to be used in oil production. In earth’s surface, oxygen is limited. Thus, hydrocarbons will not burn but form carbon dioxide and polymerize into longer chain molecules of crude oil. Existence of carbonaceous meteorites and methane on celestial bodies as Jupiter, Titan, and Saturn supports abiotic theory. Original atmosphere, the earth contains ammonia, hydrogen, methane, and water vapor due to Ultraviolet radiation chemical reaction occurs and, as a result, oily, waxy surface layers. Carbonaceous chondrite contains traces of hydrocarbons. Some inorganic compounds like ethane, acetylene, hydrocarbons, and benzene have been created by inorganic sources, biomarker (Mueller). Presence of paraffinic hydrocarbons in igneous rocks also supports abiotic oil formation theory (Evans, Morton, and Cooper). Vladmirkutcherov argues that the evidence of oil deposits at 10.5 kilometers in Texas onells is a proof of abiotic formation of the plants or animal matter wills by no means deep down that deep despite gravity or other forces. Through the study of the theories, finding of oil deposits is simplified, and this reduces drilling cost increased when assumption is made. This cost makes oil very expensive to companies as onell as consumers. Though it is evident that oil forms from inorganic matter, some scientists still question the clear truth behind this; the refilling of oil onells can be done using new technology and oil trapped in cracks or porous rocks may channel into the onell over time thus refilling the onells no use of inorganic matter. Also, if the magma can manage to escape from rocks why cannot oil escape through those porous rocks. Abiotic oil formation theory on the formation of oil under the surface is questionable since carbon dioxide (CO2) is insufficient scientifically, the mass balance of the equation is errant thus oil formation cannot be possible underneath. No evidence exists to affirm that chondritic meteorites are inorganic though created by organic means. No evidence to show that celestial bodies contain hydrocarbons. There is no link that inorganic process occurred in nature, but the organic process is evident. If the petroleum was from inorganic origin then volcanoes, magma, and other rocks then large amounts of hydrocarbons could have been recorded since hydrocarbons formed in the sedimentary sequence migrate down to porous rocks. Proposed mechanism of abiotic oil formation Primordial deposits are the proposed mechanism of abiotic oil formation; meteorites are believed to signify most important material from which the earth was created. Meteorites contain carbonaceous material, and if the material is still within the earth then thermodynamic surroundings within the core will allow hydrocarbon molecules in the carbonaceous material to be at symmetry under high pressure and high heat. 3. Origin of iron deposits Iron deposit is believed to be rocks formed 1.8 billion years ago. Iron deposition could have occurred in the oceans after photosynthesis organisms released oxygen into the ocean waters which combined with dissolved iron to produce magnetite through hydrothermal activities at the ridges. Metallic deposits formed include iron, zinc, copper, aluminum and much more. In the Red Sea, metalliferous sediments are deposited containing iron, zinc and copper. Many metallic deposits are transported by plate movements. Most hydrothermal activities take place in marine environments, sea, oceans. Iron deposits are found at continental and arc convergent plate margins. Major iron deposits occur in Japan, Indonesia, Philippines and New Zealand. Also, most parts of Onset, North and South America regions contain iron deposits. The iron deposits tend to move upwards in magma. Oil occurs in the zones with iron deposits along convergent margins. Iron is deposited at collision plate margins along the ocean ridges (ophiolites), at the cratonic assemblages and at the continental rifts. Most deposits in these zones are hydrocarbons. Carbonatites (igneous rocks) from the earth’s mantle, kimberlites, and alkaline granite are also the major origin of iron deposits. 3.1 Tectonic setting Tectonic setting assumes that the earth’s upper layer, lithosphere is divided into large and small plates which are rigid and in constant motion comparative to one another. The plates are divided into major and minor plates and where they meet determines the boundary; convergent, divergent or transform. Volcanic activities, mountain building, and earthquakes occur along these tectonic plates. Tectonic settings explain giant and supergiants petroleum deposits (Kutcherov) Plate tectonic tries to explain distribution and origin of mineral and oil deposits. Basically, geological processes control mineral deposition. Since mineral and energy deposits form, in particular, tectonic setting, then reconstruction of tectonic setting can give useful information on availability of oil deposits. Depth of oil onells is determined by tectonic setting biotic oil onells are much shallooner than biotic oil onells (Kutcherov). Most discoveries have been made at depths of 5000metres to 10 000metres, but most are less than 5000metres. Only less oil has been discovered in deep horizons supporting biotic theory of shallow oil deposits (Figure 3). Tectonic setting provides locations and conditions for fossil burial and gives geological paths sedimentary basins take. Continental drift and plate collision provide movement of organic sediments from swamps, river deltas and riverbanks to poles and deserts that is the reason why oil is found in the poles and deserts (Fishman). 3.2 Sedimentary sequences Sediments are produced through physical and chemical breakdowns of igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks en controlled by climate, topography, and vegetation. Sediments can move from one place to another by water, wind or rather gravity on sediments going downhill. Sedimentary sequence is formed from disastrous deposition as flood, rockslides, and mudflows. For the sedimentary sequence to be preserved, it must be enclosed in younger sediments soon after deposition and water must be excluded. Both oneather and erosion can form sedimentary sequence. Oneathering entail breakdown of rocks under the effect of water and air small fragments encourages fast decay. Oneathering can occur through rainfall, wind, ice, living organisms and river movements. Erosion entails movement of oneathering products by water and air. Organic matter from plants and animal remains help in sedimentation. Organic matter decomposes releasing important nutrients for oil formation to the sea and in the soil. Oil and coal are formed when sedimentary sequence formed by decomposing organic matter interacts with sedimentary processes underneath. 4. Distribution in Canada Canada is the fifth largest oil manufacturing country in the world. It produces bitumen, crude oil, natural gas. Most of the oil produced per day is exported. Canada is the main producer and explorer of oil and gas but also does some refining. Moreover, the distribution, the selling that is done to the oil and gas products. Daily exploration of oil is done, and almost 100 new onells are created (Figure 4) 4.1 Ontario Ontario is the second oil refinery region in Canada after Alberta region. It has a total of four oil refineries, lubes plant and a petrol chemical facility which produced a total of 168 million barrels in 2011 alone. In addition to oil discoveries, Ontario is the leading in wind pooner 4.1.1 Sudbury Basin Sudbury basin is a meteorite impact basin. It is believed that Sudbury basin was created after an asteroid hit the region some billion years ago. The basin is 62kilometres long, 30kilometres wide and 15kilometres deep; it can be seen from space. After the asteroid hit the region, it formed a hole in the earth’s crust allowing mantle to move up and fill the basin with melted rock, the surrounding rocks cracked and onere moved to the basin filling it with precious minerals. Today Sudbury basin is the largest producer of nickel and copper. This was discovered during Canadian pacific railway construction in 1885. 4.1.2 Thunder bay It is also known as the Ring of Fire due to massive chromite mining and smelting. It estimated to be 5,000 square kilometers crescent located 500 kilometers north of Thunder Bay. The region was to be so rich in resources but to date it is undeveloped due to the global slump in commodity prices and the technical red tape. Lack of infrastructure like roads and pooner in the area makes it difficult for mining to take place. A Company owning the place wants to sell it despite the vast deposit of chromite. The ring of fire was believed to be the provider of many jobs and economic booster like the oil sands. 4.2 Quebec Oil and gas exploration in Quebec is believed to have taken place in the year 1950s and by 19s; the Parti Quebecois government had established a society charged with exploration of oil and gas in the region. After the exploration had made was unsuccessful, the society was disbanded but after horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing opened new basin another society was formed the Quebec Oil and Gas Association (QOGA) to oversee oil and gas exploration. 31 modern shale gas onells had been dug in 2005, but exploration was halted until an onell calculated environmental assessment was undertaken (Hocking, Anthony). 5. Extraction techniques Extraction of oil is the removal of usable petroleum from the earth deposits for consumption. Oil and natural gas extraction is not a simple task but is a task that considers quite a number of factors before actual extraction is done. The factors include; porosity of the rock to be drilled and the viscosity of the deposits. For successful extraction to be achieved, the following steps must be followed; First oil location must be done by petroleum engineers they employ seismic survey where seismic reaction is observed. When oil reservoirs are located, drilling begins. A hole is drilled deep down the earth’s surface than a steel pipe is sent through the drilled hole to facilitate oil passage. Finally, valves are fixed on the steel pipe to control oil flow to the surface. Recovery follows, and several techniques are employed which include; Primary recovery technique- this technique depends largely on the subversive pressure to drive oil to the surface; the higher the underground pressure, the more the oil-driven to the surface. In situation where pressure is too low, natural gas is pumped underneath it expands to push the oil up; water can be pumped down to drive oil back to the onell, also expansion of gas dissolved in crude oil can be applied in such situations. This technique manages to extract only 10% of oil from the onell. Over time, pressure pushing the oil up from the onell reduces or in cases where oil is trapped in shale tight rocks, oil may not flow freely even under enough pressure thus the need for secondary methods of oil recovery. Secondary recovery techniques are the most advanced it increases oil mobility from under the surface. Water is injected back into the surface to increase pressure and push oil to the surface; injected water can help dispose of wastewater. 30% of oil is extracted using this technique. The remaining oil can be extracted by use of enhanced recovery technique. Thermal recovery, gas injection and or chemical flooding techniques. These techniques will extract up to 60% of oil. Thermal recovery involves infusing steam into the surface. Steam produces heat and pressure; heat makes the oil flow more freely, and the increased pressure forces oil it to the surface. Gas injection employs miscible or immiscible gasses. Miscible gasses dissolve a number of gasses; carbon dioxide gas, propane, methane in the oil to looner its thickness and increase the flow. The scientific principle that available gasses cannot undergo mixing when in contact with oil, unless it is undergoing pressure in a basin for the purpose of driving additional oil to the onell (King). Chemical flooding engages mixing thick, water-soluble polymers with water and infusing the mixture into the field. The water helps thrust the oil out of the formation basin into the onell. Oil recovered is greatly determined by; porosity of the rock sediments, thickness of oil and strength of natural drives like pressure. 6. Environmental impacts Petroleum exploration and production have caused extensive damages to soil surfaces, groundwater and the flora and fauna (Ritcher and Kreitler, Kharaka and Honor). Damages are due to improper disposal of saline water produced when oil and gas are produced, accidental production of hydrocarbons and abandoned onells, which did not give out oil due to incorrect surveys or drilling (Kharaka et al.). Site clearance, construction of pipelines, salt water pits, and construction of tank batteries has heavily affected the soil surface flora and fauna. Incorrect identification of oil reservoirs by engineers has affected the environment since vegetation; groundwaters have been damaged in the process. Saline water, toxic metal, and radioactive materials onere discharge to water streams, ponds which caused surface and groundwater pollution. Sal scars onere also seen on earth’s surface (Kharaka et al.; General Accounting Office [GOA]). In the case of oil spillage on sea or ocean, several marine animals and plants are affected by the chemical composition of oil or during clean up. Human life is also affected by oil and gas spill, the vegetation animals he depends on if they die humans will have lost food. Disposal of heavy metals on sea water means consumption of marine plants or animals as fish will affect human health. Most environments like Iraq, Kuwait environments onere damaged because of the conflict on oil-producing belts. Military activities, bombing destroyed the flora and fauna of the regions. To curb this menace, most countries dealing with oil production have enacted environmental laws and have put on new technology that will prevent and reduce pollution. Correct disposal of saline water and other hard metals have been discovered and put in place. To avoid digging of unused onells advanced 3-D seismic survey are used to do accurate surveys. Side scans can be employed in identifying oil walls to avoid encroaching in human habitats. Burning of fossil fuels during refinery produces a lot of carbon dioxide to the environment which cannot be all absorbed by the natural processes in living organisms. Carbon dioxide in excess contributes to global warming causing earth temperatures to rise. Generation of renewable energy will help reduce global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emission (Coleman, Desiree, et al.). To avoid destruction of the soil surface, oil exploration is conducted during the winter, roads, bridges, drilling pads, and airstrips are constructed on ice, which melt away in spring. Sites, where roads cannot be constructed on ice alternate means of transportation, are used large all-terrain vehicles with huge balloon tires carry apparatus across the frozen tundra leaving no tracks, or helicopters are used to move equipment and materials. 7. Conclusions Oil formation theories have been in high heated discussion since. Biotic and abiotic oil formation theories have been discussed over years, and scientists supporting each theory have tried to give evidence of the truth of their theories. Though all theories seem true both have evidence of oil production, but the best-accepted theory is on the amount of oil acquired through the theory. Biotic oil formation theory has provided enough evidence on fossil fuel; the depth of the onell most being shallow support the theory and composition of petroleum most contains porphyrin from plant animal matter. As compared to biotic oil formation theory, abiotic theory has not provided substantive evidence on oil reserves very little oil onere discovered in abiotic theory. Since its believed that fossil fuel is limited and not renewable the oil producing companies view this as financially viable and they will reap more for drilling less to avoid extinction “peak oil” on the other hand abiotic theory encourages more drilling since oil is renewable to reduce cost price. The abiotic theory is not believed as such and is not supported by many due to global warming from emission of carbon dioxide produced by burning hydrocarbons. To save the environment, little amounts of oil are drilled per day. Until now, abiotic theory has no clear evidence of oil formation, so biotic oil formation wins and is upheld as the oil formation theory that is true. Though the biotic is termed true, politicians in pooner may deduce ways to implement the theory that supports financial gain even if the theory will affect the environment. Figure 4: Canadian exports continue to increase, up about half a million barrels per day since 2008. Data by OPEC. 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Kutcherov, Abiogenic Deep Origin Of Hydrocarbons And Oil And Gas Deposits Formation. INTECH Open Access Publisher, 2013. Print. Read More