Management in Daoism - Literature review Example

Management in Daoism” Introduction The philosophy of Daoism is articulated in Daodejing and the Zhuangzi. Daodejing or Laozi literally means “Old Master” in Chinese and was believed authored by Laozi who lived and taught with “Confucius” and who composed books of rhymes and verses, compiled into volumes of two books. Laozi is considered a man of wisdom and his teachings go beyond time and culture to reach us who admire life and its meaning. Daoism experts recommend that it be used in everyday life, particularly in management. The philosophy and principles spoken of in the verses talk of tired lives since the period of its founding was a time of conflicts and wars. Laozi and contemporaries may have thought of the future like today, with tired bodies wanting to experience art and culture amidst war and chaos. Conflict can refer to indecision, problems, or self-conflict. The dao in Laozi’s verses refers to “the source, sustenance, and ideal state of all things in the world” (Ivanhoe 162). It is also intangible and can be perceived as the basis for everything we see, although it is not “ontologically transcendent”. The dao is the “root” of everything and “ziran” or “so of itself” (Ivanhoe 162). Humans have the ability to think and desire for many things, or act in whatever way they want, and change their very nature; in so doing, they tend to forget their place in the universe and disturb the natural Way. The Laozi wants to reverse the outcomes of human activities and frailty and make us to return to what we should be in nature. Background Researchers and proponents of Chinese philosophy indicated that Daodejing or Laozi is important to the study of Chinese philosophy. The Daodejing and Zhuangzi were written in two separate periods but there are verse contents of the dao that are present in the Zhuangzi. The title Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) written in the second century (B.C.) became accepted during the time of Emperor Jin of the Han Dynasty (Tang 62). When the Laozi was written, China was in a period towards the end of violent rivalries among different states, and this was known as the “Warring States Period”. So, it can be said that the Laozi texts were a reaction to the prevailing situation at that time. Some verses express the lamentation of a people wary of conflict and chaos, or one longing for a bygone time of “innocence, security, and peace” (Ivanhoe 162). The text also expresses denouncement of wars and government corruption, and hatred for greed and power. Zuangzi was considered one of the founders of the Daoist philosophy, rather than being a Confucian or Mohist (Kjellberg 208). It has been said that there is little information about Zhuangzi but a book was named after him. Much of the information in the book is fictional but he was real as he lived during the later part of the fourth century B.C.E. Zhuangzi’s texts were put together during the year 300 C.E. and were believed to be attributed to several authors. Some passages were attributed to Zhuangzi but were compiled by his students and other authors or editors contributed to the work which has become the work of Zhuangzi (Kjellberg 207). Zhuangzi is rich in words taken from history and mythological stories of the time. He wrote poems, verses, logical statements, and prose. He was adept of the Kongzi, Laozi, and the Mohist ideas. Zhuangzi’s ideas were not presented systematically; he talks about “Heaven” as above any other ideal. Human means everything, even activities that hinder or obstruct nature, including punishment for criminals and abstract things, for example “right and wrong.” The dao, or “the Way” covers the world we are in and “the Way for people to live in it” (Kjellberg 208). Humans must have hope, but Zhuangzi doubts if we have the capacity to learn about it. He does not want people to think but would want us to experience so that we can act according to experience and intuition. Zhuangzi promotes thinking and talking instead of understanding, and it is useless to figure out what life is all about (Kjellberg 208). Many scholars indicated that Laozi reflects for the most part the Confucian period, which is around the sixth or the fifth century B.C. The language was perceived anachronistic, revealing that it was composed at a later period. The archaeological finds point to the conclusion that the Daodejing had evolved into the “Han-era Wang Bi” version. This was referred to as a “manuscript culture,” or a kind of culture wherein the texts are submitted to various modifications, as against the “print culture,” in which the verses or prose are composed only once and does not receive modifications (Behuniak 364). The Laozi is universal because it has a role in human history’s golden age, or the time when people did not yet have intelligent differences among things, or when things were yet so simple and qualities and values among people seemed similar (Ivanhoe 162). China of the Daodejing period was not a single country; it was divided into kingdoms, small and medium-sized ones that had their dominions in the far stretches of the Yellow and Huai river valleys. There were many pocket wars between kingdoms during the time of Confucius, one kingdom taking hold of another, and then another kingdom takes power over the one that just overpowered the other. The two powerful kingdoms of this period were the Chu, under the dominion of Duke Zhuang, and Qi, under the dominance of Duke Huan. They overpowered the smaller kingdoms, annexed into their own, and developed the lands for agriculture (Roberts 10). The Daodejing texts and interpretations In Roberts’ translation of the Daodejing, the structure of the original work was carefully followed and the beauty of form was presented for non-Chinese readers. Commentary was provided by the translator to give a meaningful explanation of the text. Laozi, according to Roberts, challenges the gender hierarchy by presenting a “universal cosmic mother” (Ruiqi 489). The Daodejing should be noted for its poetic quality. The dual lines in the original Chinese verses have somewhat opposite but complementary meaning. Roberts’ sentence structures are carefully selected to best translate the message. Ivanhoe’s translation, on the other hand, emphasizes the poetic quality but is straightforward and successful. Laozi and Zhuangzi entail ontologies but the two have “distinct origins in the development of early Chinese thought” (Fried 421). In ancient Chinese texts, there was a separation between philosophical and religious Daoism. Fried says that an investigation of the ontology of dao is difficult because the Chinese Qin philosophy focused on questions of ethics and politics, which is different from the intentions of dao. Management in Daoism Laozi and the philosophers in ancient China composed the universal verses, meaning they were thinking of our time. During times of turmoil and indecision, we need the Daodejing. There are verses that can be interpreted as referring to Confucius, such as the notion of “harmony” in chapter 42, which is about “ordered richness and not about preordained uniformity” (Behuniak 376). The dao is like an inspiration or hope for us who have reached this age, a time of complexity and doubt, a time of technology we think we need but has complicated our problems. The dao might lead us to where we have been; that could be the time we can reach the fullness of our existence. Business in the concept of Laozi is reducing “the insufficient” and offering more to the excessive” which makes man want for more. How should business manage the lavish desires? How should a Laozi-inspired business person function in the corporate world which is full of greed and lavish desires? Managers can choose the Way of Laozi by “learning to understand the role that they, and the businesses in which they work and operate, have in the wholeness of the Universe” (Egizi 193). Managers make decisions that impact the success and sustainability of their businesses. Laozi should inspire businessmen in saying, “To conquer others is to have strength; to conquer yourself is to be strong’ (qtd. in Eqizi 193). And by conquering ourselves, greed is reduced and business may strive for social responsibility and environmental protection. Business is a cancer in society but it can be used to meet man’s needs using Laozi. Managers can become “servant leaders,” provide work/life balance practices, “practices which will work to strengthen personal and social resilience” (Egizi 193). Leaders and political science researchers foretell different scenarios in the future. Businesses can produce food, manufacture products and use energy but they can minimize “overuse” of resources by having less travel, new ways of sustainable business or sustainable designs of urban cities. Daoism is important in the greater appreciation of the complex way of interconnectedness of things in life (Kohn, qtd. in Egizi 194). Nancy Murray wrote in her book, “An Inner Voice for Public Administration,” that in public administration thinking and practice, as in business, we should be able to connect outstanding points of eastern philosophy. Murray attempts to build a bridge between eastern and western thinking by combining analytical psychology’s concept of reflective thinking with eastern ideals of wholeness, and “to build a philosophy that promotes the growth and development of individual public administrators who are committed to public services” (Xu 276). Management and public administration can benefit immeasurably from Daoism, particularly the profound teachings of Laozi, who has deeper ideas of the philosophical qualities of governance. Public administration and thinking and practice should see beyond the level of individual practitioners and from Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi emphasizes the importance of being skeptical and aware of the limits in public administration theorizing. It analyzes and provides insights between unplanned governance and the individual in an unplanned government. Zhuangzi provides suggestions about imagination that can serve as an escape route for public administration, bureaucracy and the public in general from being a prisoner of a uni-dimensional society. Public administration thinking and practice should decline the emphasis on “instrumental rationality,” and instead embrace imagination, openness, and spontaneity (Xu 276). There are many similar arguments of Western philosophers and Zhuangzi. Saussure (qtd. in Xu 282) discovers the deep formation of the language system and sees language as a system that predestines our way of understanding and experiencing the world. Derrida (qtd. in Xu 282) wrote: “The writer writes in a language and in a logic whose proper system, laws and life his discourse by definition cannot dominate absolutely … The person writing is inscribed in a determined textual system.” Corporate social responsibility Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a way of practicing the dao. There are many ways to implement CSR, which is a way of “giving back” to society. Environmental protection and reducing impact has been the concern of businesses throughout the world. This has been going on since the nineteenth century. CSR is an expression of the relationship between society and business. Concerned citizens realize the impact and influence of business in society. Corporations can exploit the environment, get raw materials to build new products, but this is with some limitations. Companies should reduce the harm they induce on the environment and must also take a role in the development of society. This is what Laozi says about business and society: “To produce things and to rear them; to produce but not to take possession of them; to act, but not to rely on one’s own ability; to lead them, but not to master them – this is called profound and secret virtue” (chp. 10; Chan 1963, qtd. in Egizi 195). There are many ways to interpret CSR and practice it to benefit society and the organization. It is a way of sharing economic profit that should also include workplace balance, environmental protection, and investment in the place where the organization conducts business. Some practices include promoting ethical business practice, promoting sustainable leadership principles and providing for good health and well-being standards within the organization and in society as a whole. CSR indices or benchmarks measure the extent to which organizational strategy is incorporated into business practice throughout an organization, providing a way for management to benchmark their CSR practices, including performance in various environmental and social impact areas that benefit the business. CSR has four areas of concentration, namely: community, which include identifying social concerns, community improvement, or working with community leaders; environment, which emphasizes environmental preservation or reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, water conservation, leadership in various green movement activities; marketplace, which focuses on balancing innovation and creativity to lessen the impact of products and services, enhancing green supply chain practices, and helping raise the standards of accountability among stakeholders in business; and, workplace, which focuses on recruitment and retention, improving skills, promoting working practices, social benefits, and so on (Egizi 196). Conclusion Daoism philosophy can be applied with great effect in many areas of our lives, but it is particularly effective in business and organizations, in stress management, and even in schools where student discipline is needed. Public administration should benefit from Daoism, in what David Farmer (qtd. in Xu 275) emphasized as “the importance of play in public administration thinking” and that imaginative possibilities can bring in “fresh consciousness in public administration thinking” (Xu 276). Success in business depends on people who are dedicated on the concepts of real living in a world dominated with greed and indifference, unpredictability, and accelerating change due to globalization and technology. Market economies continue to weaken while organizations compete in the world of business dominated by the principle of “survival of the fittest”. CSR activities, inspired by the principles of Daoism, can enhance sustainable improvement in our world heavily victimized by climate change. Works Cited Behuniak, James. “‘Embracing the One’ in the Daodejing.” Philosophy East & West. 59.3 (2009): 364-381. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 3 Mar. 2014. Egizi, Rita. “Daoist Principles as a Solution for Sustainable Business.” Journal of Daoist Studies. 4.1 (2011): 190-201. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 8 Mar. 2014. Fried, Daniel. “What’s in a Dao?: Ontology and Semiotics in Laozi and Zhuangzi.” Dao. 11.43 (2012): 419-436. Springer. Web. 4 Mar. 2014. Ivanhoe, Philip. “Chapter Four: Laozi (“The Daodejing”).” Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. 2nd ed. 2003. Ed. Philip Ivanhoe and Bryan W. Van Norden. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. 161-206. Print. Kjellberg, Paul. “Chapter Five: Zhuangzi.” Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. 2nd ed. 2003. Ed. Philip Ivanhoe and Bryan W. Van Norden. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. 207-254. Print. Roberts, Moss. “Introduction.” Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way. Lao Tsi. London, England: Regents of the University of California. 2001. 1-24. Print. Xu, Swan Hua. “Rambling with Zhuangzi: Imagination and Spontaneity for Public Administration and Governance.” Administrative theory & Praxis. 28.2 (2006): 275-291. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOHost. Web. 5 Mar. 2014. Read More