Weber's Sociology. The Ideal-Type Explaining Social Phenomena - Essay Example

Weber's ideal type is central to his methodology; using example from social science demonstrate how useful you think his ideal type is Introduction: According to Weber sociology is a particular science of human behaviour and its consequences. For him all kinds of social structures and relationships, cultural objectification are the results of basic individual behaviour. Weber's aim is to interpret actions of individuals in the social world and the ways in which they give meanings to social phenomena. To do so however, it is not sufficient to observe action of one individual or collect data from a group of individuals. It requires selection of method to address the peculiar question the action raises (Schtz, Walsh & Lehnert, 1967 5). Weber does not find description alone sufficient; there should be understanding from an individual action. A few causal explanations could be made e. g. I am certain the window broke because it was struck by a rock - I saw it myself; but I can not predict on the basis or rules or laws as to what blows will break which windows. At the most a generalisation like 'Windows are fragile, and fragile things tend to break when struck hard enough, other conditions being right.' (Ringer, 1997-85)... Weber's method of understanding meaning of an action is by construction of ideal types. These are not statistical averages since these depend on unusual questions being asked at that time and they are created as per the methodological demands of these questions (Schtz et al. 1967 5). The article focuses on Weber's concept of ideal-type and rationality as a tool for understanding social phenomena through interpretive sociological research. Defining Weber's ideal type: An ideal type is a mental construct or picture which the investigator uses to address the reality. The ideal type is different from 'ideals' and it is ideal in coherent way. For an investigator the ideal type is an instrument that he or she uses to give a meaning to the diverse reality. Its usefulness lies in "its success in revealing concrete cultural phenomena in their interdependence, their causal conditions and their significance" (Weber 1949 as in Andersen & Kaspersen, 2000, p 79). The investigator designs an ideal type by " the one sided accentuation of one or more point of view and by synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete more or less present or occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged to those one- sidedly emphasised viewpoints into a unified analytical construct" (Weber 1949 as in Andersen & Kaspersen, 2000, p79). Weber's definition may be understood by a simple example. Suppose A and B are playing chess. Their behaviour is oriented to an action model, M. The model is not restricted to A and B only, it is an ideal type chess player. Schutz et al (1967) explain that beyond their individuality as chess player, the other concrete individual living experiences of A and B are neither identical nor are being compared here. Andersen & Kaspersen (2000) clarifies that the ideal type are human construct and do not have any counterpart in reality. The social laws are examples of ideal type. Knowledge of law is not the knowledge of reality; these are path leading to understand the reality. The origin of ideal type is attributed to the finding that social sciences lack the causal laws and experimental regularities of natural sciences. Weber cautioned social scientists against using historical constructs as such for explaining reality in contemporary times; he rather advises them designing their own construct using these as basis. The historical constructs show beliefs and attitudes prevalent at that time. Human behaviour is not predictable or constant phenomenon (Ringer, 1997, p110). There are always individual elements associated with it. Weber had maintained that we keep ourselves to certain aspects of reality while exclude other since the chosen aspects are relevant to our values. We thus reduce the complexity of data by constructing abstract concepts containing only selected attributes. The ideal type, well known for application in economics, religion and social science, is extended to understand psychiatric illness also, as shown by Schwartz & Wiggins (1987). Such a construct has elements that promote mental well being and restructure mental illness. We do so because these are relevant to us or in Weber's terminology these are value-relevant and one sided. It disregards many other aspects of people and investigating and treating them. The mental health and illness in terms of psychiatry only is the exclusive focus. The concrete reality of interest to a psychiatrist is simplified by an ideal type construct. He gets multiple data of his interest through this ideal type. The patient may show some new symptoms of the disease or absence of some symptoms compared to the established conditions. The outcome gives psychiatrist to understand mental health with a new perspective. The 'ideal-type' explaining social phenomena: The ideal type concept has developed a middle path between history and social science or between positivism and understanding (Pressler & Dasilva , 1996, p23) Weber emphasised that sociology must have legitimate methodology to develop connection between action and meaning. Thus sociological descriptions need to be interpretive and not merely descriptive. Without interpretation the sociological generalisations and clarifications would be vague. The ideal type forms a bridge between subjective understanding and objective explanation (Cuff, Sharrock & Francis, 1990). But how does the ideal type apply to analyse a social phenomenon The ideal type has consistency of human actions and their embodied meanings. Or the pragmatic collection of a phenomenon is included in ideal type. These are important parts of Weber's Verstehen sociology. Weber's sociology begins with orientation towards a phenomenon. An orientation is a human stand or action towards an object. Now the object is identified with the human action which is a social action. Others' action is interpreted regarding that action. Thus the sociologist regards orientation of people towards some object or phenomenon to construct an ideal type.. Weber's social methodology thus elaborates the kind of social actions that recur in behaviour of individuals due to their orientation towards a social phenomenon. The elaboration of such orientations is ideal type which provides interpretation of rationality of actions of social individuals (Pressler & Dasilva, 1996, p 23-24 ). Weber's ideal-typical methodology also explains behaviours that show less rational orientations towards social objects. It is evident that ideal-typical behaviour can be distributed along a scale of decreasing transparency. Weber has divided actions in different categories. These are: purposive-rational, which shows a logical connection with the predicted outcome. Value- oriented action is taken on the basis of values and morals while Affective action is based on emotions and the traditional action is dictated by the customs of the actor. For Weber, the ideal type is a collection of all possible orientations of social individuals and an individual's action is judged against these to interpret his behaviour. The traditional and affectual actions are outside the scope of meaningful behaviour since the actor himself does not know the link between action and the force behind it. These are not rational actions. The difference between an affectual and value rational action is that in the latter the ultimate goals of the action are clearly formulated while in the former emotions guide the action. While the difference between value-rational and purposive -rational action is that in the former, value necessitates certain action while in the latter; the actor is interested in the outcome and consciously selects which action to take to achieve the desired end (Andersen & Kaspersen, 2000, p81). Weber's (1930 as in Johnson, 2008, p 36) analysis of protestant ethics and its effect on people's economic behaviour became well known and was example of value oriented rationality. He argued that people's religious beliefs shaped their motivation contributing to growth of capitalism. Particularly the belief that eternal salvation is provided as free gift to god's chosen ones, had the effect of bypassing the priesthood and sacrament of institutional church rather individual s could relate to god on their own (Johnson, 2008, p 36). The actions of man are not the conscious effort all the time. Whimster (2007) posits that sociologists accept generally that man is often placed in sociological situations over which he does not have any control. In such a case his action is 'caused' (happen) rather than predicted. Yet, in this causative model, every situation has objective possibilities thus sociologically we are not in a free world but in the realm of constrained choices. Causal explanations attribute causes to actions on the basis of evidences. For example, In an English coroner's court the objective possibility is enquiring whether the person was murdered, died of natural causes or took his own life. In arriving at a conclusion, the coroner attributes a cause. The coroner may be wrong or right and this highlights the role of probability in sociological judgments. A higher level is expected from social scientists to imagine all possible causes from their experience and education and come to a conclusion based on all evidences. Johnson (2008) states that social systems whether large or small always have interrelated probabilities making individuals react in certain ways to reflect their mutual subjective orientations towards one another. For example an authority relationship exists when there is high probability that one party feels that he or she has right to give order while other assents to this right and to comply. There may be specific or personal elements in the participants' orientation but these are ignored when attention is on the structure itself. This is the strategy for Weber's ideal type analysis. An ideal type is conceptual construct that highlights certain specific orientations and actions for comparison and analysis. For example subordinates may vary greatly in terms of their personal attitude towards their boss in an organisation but the maximum probabilities are that they would comply with his or her orders. Weber's Emphasis on understanding and Rationality: Ideal types predict meaning of a social phenomenon effectively when due regards to rationality is given in the analysis. Kalberg (2009) stated four types of rationality as defined by Weber. The practical rationality is judging every day activities by purely matter-of-fact view. The practically rational person accepts the realities and calculates the most expedient means to overcome problems. The practical ends are attained by most adequate means. This rationality is a type of purposive- end rationality. Theoretical or Intellectual rationality is deliberate manipulation of reality through abstract concept than action. Such rationality is shown in acts of systematic thinkers, ritualistic priests taming nature or super naturals and also by the judges interpreting constitution. It requires cognitive abilities to do so. Substantive rationality directs action into patterns containing not just a single value but a set of values differing in consistency and content. For example friendship involves adhering to values such as loyalty, compassion, mutual assistance. Substantive rationality touches a limited area of life leaving all other untouched. It is a man's inherent capacity to value-rational action. Formal rationality addresses those spheres of life that came into limelight due to industrialisation such as legal, economic and scientific spheres unlike inter-civilisation and characters transcending since ages as in earlier three rationalities. Formal rationality weighs a means -end calculation against established laws, rules and regulations. In his doctrine of verstehen Weber distinguishes between direct observation and observatory understandings. Direct observational understating happens when one directly observes the behaviour and compares it with established rules for e. g. behaviour in church or by compassion when someone expresses his feelings (Andersen & Kaspersen, 2000). The explanatory or motivational understanding happens when we know the motive behind a person's action. The action explains the motive, but for observational understanding, it is difficult to find out whether an affectual action is meaningful behaviour hence a genuine action or not. For example some one is really angry can be known by a look on his face and from his gestures. But how can one know that the anger is meaningfully oriented action or simply over-reaction to a stimulus or a tantrum to release suppressed feelings The direct observation does not give any idea what the action means to him subjectively. The motivational or explanatory understanding depends on knowing the context under which the action comes. This is a little vague here since it is not clear that the meaning we deduct from the action is also there in the mind of actor or not (Schutz et al, 1967). Thus motivational meaning searches the past experiences and behaviour to arrive at the meaning of current action. But for the observer it can not assure that meaning is correct, it only may be so from the point of view of the observer. This aspect of Weber understands is somewhat less well understood. Conclusion: Social life includes both mutual interdependence and cohesion at one hand and exploitation and conflicts at the other. Weber has given an analytical method that incorporated both these conflicting perspectives. He has covered sociology of religion, bureaucratic organization, political and economic sociology and sociological stratification. Weber thoroughly analysed and incorporated individual's subjectively meaningful social action as fundamental unit of social reality. His substantive interests involved wide ranging social comparisons and social changes. Unlike Durkheim, he did not pay much attention to forces outside the individual (Johnson, 2008, p35). The ideal type is also applied to by Weber to legitimate the social actions particularly those involving social relationship. In these relationships man feels legitimate and even accepts power over him because of: rational beliefs, emotional beliefs, value based and purposive-rational beliefs. Weber extended his ideal type to organization but these are called pure types of legitimate authority and are only three in number. Traditional reasons according to which one who is fit to exercise authority as per traditions is respected, charismatic qualities in person viz. holiness, courage, leadership and purposive -rationality stating that those according to law have right to exercise their authority are respected (Andersen & Kaspersen, 2000, p82). The ideal type constructs in sociology make up for the lack of concrete law governing natural sciences. The strongest point of using these constructs is concentration on relevant attributes of a particular action only thereby reducing the complexity immensely. It is the highly logical design of ideal type that has made the methodology to be extended to many other disciplines besides sociology, politics and economics. These new application include management and medical sciences also. References . Andersen, H & Kaspersen, LB (2000). Classical and modern social theory, Wiley-Blackwell Cuff, E C, Sharrock, W W & Francis, D W (1990). Perspectives in Sociology, 3rd ed, Routledge. Johnson, DP (2008). Contemporary Sociological Theory: An Integrated Multi-level Approach, Springer. Kalberg, S (2009). 'Max Weber's Types of Rationality: Cornerstones for the Analysis of Rationalization Processes in History', http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/sutton/Design/Assets/Kalberg%20AJS%201980.pdf [Apr 2, 2009] Pressler, CA & Dasilva, FB (1996). Sociology and Interpretation: From Weber to Habermas. SUNY Press Ringer, FK (1997). Max Weber's Methodology: The Unification of the Cultural and Social Sciences, 2nd ed., Harvard University Press. Schtz A, Walsh, G & Lehnert, F (1967). The phenomenology of the social world, Translated by George Walsh, Frederick Lehnert, Northwestern University Press, Schwartz, MA & Wiggins, O P (1987). 'Diagnosis and Ideal Types: A Contribution to Psychiatric Classification', Comprehensive Psychiatry. Vol. 28, no.4, July / August 1987 http://psychrights.org/articles/MASchwartz/MASDiagnosisandIdealTypes.pdf [ 2 Apr 2009] Whimster, S (2007). Understanding Weber, Routledge. Read More