Renaissance Art And Architecture - Research Paper Example

Renaissance Art And Architecture The word ‘Renaissance’ literally means ‘rebirth’ and it is used today to refer to a specific time period in Western European culture. Beginning in Italy in the 1400s, the Renaissance continued through the 1600s as it spread upward and westward throughout Europe. “The term ‘Renaissance’ might now be defined as a model of cultural history in which the culture of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe is represented as a repudiation of medieval values in favor of the revival of the culture of ancient Greece and Rome” (Campbell, 2004, v-vi). Many of the ancient works of these cultures focused on representing nature in perfected form (Greeks) or nature as it existed (Romans). In refocusing their eye to the artistic perfection of the ancients, the artists of the Renaissance brought a new respect and admiration to their work. Thanks to the efforts of Alberti, Leonardo and other artists of the Renaissance, the artist was no longer viewed as a craftsperson. Painting was elevated to the status of a liberal art. While most of the known artists of this period were male, there were some female artists, such as Artemisia Gentileschi. With the enhanced reputation of art as a highly specialized skill, trained individuals such as Artemisia Gentileschi were able to develop valuable contacts and patrons throughout Europe. Even though she did not specifically create or develop any painting techniques like other masters did, she can be considered a master artist because of her strong influence by painters such as Michaelangelo, she was the first woman ever admitted into the Accademia di Arte del Disegno in Florence, and she was taught by a master in the form of Caravaggio and her father. In addition, she brought a unique perspective to the art world in her interpretation of the narrative of the stories she depicted, providing a means by which her art might be recognized today even against the work of her father or teacher. After discovering how art transitioned from craft to highly respected profession, it will be discovered how a female painter of the Baroque era, Artemisia Gentileschi, qualifies as a master artist in her own right. The people of Italy and other nations began rediscovering the skill of the ancient world during the 15th century. The ancient art represented for them a golden age of shared culture, reason and creativity. The 15th century refocus on the classic styles, subjects and artistic depiction can be traced through various art forms created during this time period, including paintings, sculptures and architecture. Artists of the Renaissance found a common factor between the ancient artists and themselves through mathematical focus. The Italians were quick to discover how the mathematic perfection of the ancient world linked to their own proportional understandings as a means of creating more aesthetically-pleasing art. In making this link, the artists also discovered a respected means of communicating with their audience in a language they, too, could immediately understand. “In an age of non-standard shipping units, one had to be able to calculate contents and quantities of shipments fairly rapidly” (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993: 15). Painters and other artists used their culture’s strong foundational knowledge in geometry to present objects that would be familiar to the average viewer at the same time that it immediately underscored the message being portrayed. “In the same way that a painter could reduce the human form or settings to a play of geometrical figures, so could the merchant simplify all things to geometrical configurations” (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993: 15). By combining artistic expression with the principles of mathematics, artists achieved a tremendous new degree of weight and volume to their images. With this newfound ability, they naturally began taking a more direct examination of their world. This introduced progressive development of naturalism and realism discovered during this period, mostly in the area of paintings. Henceforth, the surrounding world was to be represented as it appeared to the eye. To this end, a new basis to pictorial composition was given through the invention of linear perspective, a system according to which vision was organized along straight lines, such that parallel lines running in the same direction in space seem to converge at a single point on the horizon. … Depth was suggested by depicting the progressive decrease in the size of objects and figures as their distance from the observer increases – an illusion which in painting becomes truth. (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993: 17). A number of artists emerged during this exciting period of new pictorial ability, most of whom worked under the direct support of wealthy businessmen. The practice of art was elevated through this more scientific and expressive approach from the realm of the mere craft to one of refined artistry. In this highly prolific art world, the difference between the average artist and the master was typically defined by the artist’s ability to bring revolutionary techniques or visions to the world of art. Master artists of the Italian Renaissance remain well-known names today –Giotto, Masaccio, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. “In painting, Giotto led the way in giving the human figure a greater sense of physical presence” (“Renaissance Art”, 2004). It is thanks to Giotto (1266-1337) that artists began working on creating more realistic pictures of the human figure and present them as more three-dimensional. “Even during his lifetime, he was admired and highly regarded for his naturalism and his expressive, representative art” (Gallwitz, 1999, p. 116). Masaccio (1401-1428) introduced a new way of using perspective and proportion to achieve dimension, as well as using light to bring out the contours of his elements. With the advent of the wealthy merchant class and the desire for self-aggrandizement, a new form of art emerged in the form of the portrait, for which Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) set the example. He incorporated expression in the human face by accurately portraying the images of political leaders, but doing so in such a way that their positive individual characteristics are brought out. The end result provides them with a certain impression of power and wealth. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) again revolutionized the artistic world with his explorations in color, light, landscapes and expression. Michelangelo (1475-1564), in his painting of the Sistine Chapel, had a tremendous impact on the rounded forms of the figures in later works by Raphael. Raphael (1483-1520) further pushed the idea of naturalism with his focus on composition, balance and unity. As the period waned, Baroque masters such as Caravaggio, Rubens and Bernini focused more upon natural expression, form and emotion in their work. Artemisia Gentileschi was born in 1593, the daughter of a Roman painter, Orazio Gentileschi, who came from a long line of artists based primarily in Pisa. Her mother was Prudentia Monotone Gentileschi, about whom not much is known. Artemisia had a relatively normal Italian childhood which would have included basic tutoring at home and training in ‘female’ arts such as sewing and music if she were of the upper class, although her father wasn’t considered a successful artist until well after her birth. She had younger brothers, but no sisters, which may have reduced the potential for her to have received a formal education. “In general, few peasants and women could read or write, but many males in towns were fair readers, though fewer wrote” (Cohen, 2001: 136). There are reports that she didn’t actually learn to read or write until after she had reached adulthood (McBride, 2004). At the age of 12, her mother died and Artemisia was left in the hands of her artist father. “Artemisia was introduced to painting in her father’s workshop, showing much more talent than her brothers, who worked alongside her” (Dillen, 2008). It was here, in her father’s workshop, where her training began. At the age of 19, her father accused her then tutor, Agostino Tassi, of raping her which resulted in a long trial in which Tassi was found guilty. Once the trial was over, Artemisia married another artist, Pietro Antonio di Vincenzo Stiattesi, and moved to Florence. It was in Florence that she further developed her emerging style as she worked for the Academy of Design in that city, becoming an official member in 1616. It was “a remarkable honor for a woman of her day probably made possible by the support of her Florentine patron, the Grand Duke Cosimo II of the powerful Medici family” (McBride, 2004). Also while in Florence, Artemisia had her first of two daughters, who she took with her when she returned to Rome briefly following Cosimo’s death in 1621 apparently without the company of her husband. In the same year, she accompanied her father to Genoa where she expanded her contacts in both Genoa and Venice before returning to Rome where she was listed as a head of household with her daughter and two servants. “Gentileschi later had another daughter, and both are known to have been painters, though neither their work nor any assessment of it has survived” (McBride, 2004). She moved to Naples sometime between 1626 and 1630, again as head of household, and began soliciting commissions as a means of paying for her daughter’s wedding. This led her to work in the court of King Charles I in England until civil war broke out (McBride, 2004). At this point, she moved back to Naples where she lived until her death in 1652. Artemisia’s first painting tutor was her father, Orazio. Orazio had come from a long line of painters by profession, most of whom worked in the town of Pisa (Kren & Marx, 2008). He was trained by an uncle in Rome beginning when he was 13. Although he had some success as a painter, it wasn’t until after the painter came into contact with the work of Caravaggio before he began to achieve any real success. In her father’s studio, Artemisia learned how to mix colors, how to draw and how to paint. “Since her father’s style took inspiration from Caravaggio during that period, her style was just as heavily influenced in turn” (Dillen, 2008). Under her father’s example, himself working from the example of Caravaggio, Artemisia learned to value painting directly from the model as a means of capturing more true-to-life natural detail. It must be remembered that Orazio’s style was itself heavily influenced by Caravaggio, essentially making Artemisia a lifelong student of the early Baroque master. According to Christiansen & Mann (2001), Orazio’s painting prior to his meeting with Caravaggio in 1600 (when Artemisia was 7) is characterized by mediocrity. “His figures were types, his compositions conventional; his color was slack. There is a blandness, an anonymity, and a disturbing lack of conviction to his work of the 1590s that comes as a shock to those who know only his distinctive, post-Caravaggesque pictures” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 5). Under her father’s guidance, Artemisia produced “Susanna and the Elders” (oil on canvas) in 1610. In this depiction of Susanna, Artemisia deftly handles the psychological element of the story by changing the traditional depiction. Rather than allowing the scene to take place in a relatively open space full of softening foliage and water, Artemisia depicts the scene in stark focus. Her image includes a stone wall containing Susanna’s options, only the tip of one foot finding the darkened water at the bottom of the frame and a complete absence of softening or potentially concealing foliage. “No other artist had interpreted the psychological dimension of the biblical story in such an effective format, and this aspect alone indicates that Orazio did not design the composition or develop the interpretation” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 296). Despite the obvious talent discovered in this painting, Artemisia was not able to gain entry into any of the art academies of Italy based on the simple exclusionary factor of her gender. Although there were other professional female artists both before and after Artemisia, it remained an almost impossible field for women to enter without the direct intervention of a master artist. Artemisia was fortunate in that her father recognized her talent and actively promoted her. As father and daughter received the final rejection of Artemisia as student at the academy, Orazio was working with a Tuscan painter, Agostino Tassi, in decorating the ‘volte’ of Casino della Rose located within the Pallavicini Rospigliosi Palace of Rome. Under Tassi’s instruction, Artemisia might have learned much about how to depict effective or realistic landscapes, but wouldn’t have learned much more. “Tassi is known for technical skill in perspective and for conventional marine landscapes” (Garrard & Steinem, 2008). Meanwhile, Artemisia often hired other artists to fill in the landscape details behind figures (Garrard, 2001). This may be an unconscious and entirely natural aversion to this element of painting following her rape by Tassi at the age of 18 or 19. While Garrard insists “there was no known effect of Tassi’s ‘teaching’ on her art, and Tassi’s own art is judged to be second rank, no rival for that of Artemisia or her father” (Garrard & Steinem, 2008), it seems clear that her ‘voice’ was at least partially released by this experience as her future subjects remained focused largely upon female protagonists who operated outside of the accepted levels of meekness and vulnerability. It can be argued, in viewing “Susanna and the Elders”, that this theme was already developing in Artemisia’s interest prior to her experience with the rape trial, however, it is equally possible that the theme was developing in keeping with Tassi’s interest level in Artemisia within the studio. Shortly after the trial of Tassi, Artemisia created “Judith Slaying Holfemes” (1620) in which she depicts the biblical woman violently and competently cutting off the head of her persecutor. “The heroine’s easy dispatch of Holofernes clearly provided fictional compensation for the frustration and paralysis that Artemisia experienced in her own life, both in the singular event of her rape and the ensuing trial, and in her general experience as a woman in a social system that deeply discouraged female agency” (Garrard, 2001: 20). Yet, even as the painting can be interpreted as a means for the artist to work out some of her inner turmoil on the canvas, it must also, like the “Susanna”, be recognized for its artistic quality. There is an extensive use of symbolism throughout the image, a masterful use of color to direct the eye and a strongly developed symmetry to the piece that connotes a master artist conscious of her message. The artist with the highest influence on Artemisia’s work was Caravaggio, both through her father’s teachings as well as later, after she left her father’s studio to enter Florence with her husband. “While in Florence she began to develop her own distinct style. Her colors are more brilliant than her father’s, and she continued to employ the tenebrism made popular by Caravaggio long after her father had abandoned that style. Although her compositions were graceful, she was perhaps the most violent of all the Caravaggisti” (Artemisia Gentileschi Biography, 2006). There is a great deal of evidence that she had worked directly in response to some of Caravaggio’s work. An example in point is her painting of “Judith Slaying Holofernes.” “Even if Artemisia intended her canvas as a personal vendetta against Tassi, the mood with which she infused it is barely distinguishable for that of Caravaggio’s picture. The goriness and violence are similar, as is the distaste for the task shown by the two Judiths” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 290). However, even at this stage, Artemisia was imbuing her paintings with a personal sense of vitality that differed from that of the master. “Starting from Caravaggio’s almost motionless composition, Artemisia devised a much more forceful and energetic arrangement of figures, one for which no totally convincing precedent can be suggested” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 291). It is in her ability to take the lessons of the past masters, such as Caravaggio, and build upon their ideas into her own unique voice and style, that Artemisia passes from the ranks of the mediocre artist and into the realm of the master. Based upon her training and her unique experiences, Artemisia begins to qualify as a master artist, but it requires taking a closer look at Artemisia’s paintings before this connection can be definitively made. It was early in her career, approximately 1615-1616, when Artemisia painted “The Conversion of the Magdalene” (oil on canvas). Within this painting one can see the small technical touches that distinguish the budding master from the amateur craftsman. “Avoiding overt sensuality, Artemisia illustrates Mary’s sins through costume as well as through gesture. The golden dress trimmed in blue and the oversized pearl earrings attest to a pursuit of earthly pleasures … At the same time, the however, the saint is shown in the dramatic act of renunciation, as with her left hand she pushes away the mirror” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 325). Again, Artemisia’s choice of narrative differs significantly from the traditional approach to the subject as she chooses to depict Mary sitting in a moment of tortured reflection and decision rather than literally baring her chest to her lord. Her ability to capture the woman’s inner feelings of despair and hope, horror at her former life and determination for her new, are all brought about as a result of her careful treatment of lighting, or chiaroscuro, and her choices of symbolism, of which there are many examples. The pearl earrings and rich fabric elegantly painted of her clothing indicate her former choices for luxury and comfort. The hand clutching at the breast, apparently the only thing keeping the garment decently up, brings attention to the woman’s other hand as it reaches toward words that translate to mean “she chooses the better part” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 325). In her uniqueness of vision, ability to masterfully incorporate the painterly techniques of her day and her deep sense of symbolic imagery, Artemisia demonstrates her status as a master artist. As she developed as an artist, she only continued to build upon this well-deserved reputation. With the oil on canvas painting “Judith and her Maidservant with Holofernes’ Head” (1625) currently held in Detroit, “we see a new expansiveness in movement, scale and setting” (Garrard, 2001: 27). This painting demonstrates elements of Artemisia’s influences as she moved from Rome to Florence and back again in such elements as the linear clarity of the women’s arms and the more fluid and painterly brushstrokes found in the lit elements of Judith’s dress. In addition, she demonstrates her mastery of chiaroscuro found in the drapery as well as tenebrism in her depiction of extreme lights and darks in the women’s clothing as they become lit by the reflected light of the candle on the table. Garrard (2001) points out the various ways in which Artemisia’s depictions of fabric folds and the various ways light plays across them have developed in this painting as compared to earlier works. “Purple is juxtaposed with gold in both the Burghley [Susanna] picture and the Detroit Judith, yet when the two works are set side by side, the folds of the Elder’s purple sleeves appear overdefined and shiny in comparison with those of the Detroit Abra’s more loosely and lightly described garment” (Garrard, 2001: 87). In her ability to grow and change, continuing to incorporate and refine new artistic techniques and apply them to her own purposes, blending them in order to achieve a more perfect depiction of her own vision, Artemisia again proves herself to be much more than a mere copyist. Her painting of the “Birth of Saint John the Baptist” (1633-1635) represents yet another marker of the master artist acquired for the female painter of Rome. The painting is one of six paintings completed in a collaboration between three artists, Artemisia, Massimo Stanzione and Paolo Finoglia. While she is again depicting a traditional biblical scene, she again fills it with her own unique vision as she manages to capture the sense of the everyday domestic in its depiction of textures, furnishings and darkened spaces. “Her naturalist conception has been tempered by a beautifully composed and balanced figural grouping and some of her most accomplished figures, such as the kneeling maid at the right. The beautifully realized tactility of the midwife’s shawl combines a naturalist tendency in the rendition of texture and surface with a growing interest in the representation of opulent fabrics and richly appointed interiors” (Christiansen & Mann, 2001: 406). Thus, Artemisia in this painting again demonstrates a continued ability to adapt and change to the new artistic techniques and ideas in vogue during the time in which she paints her images as well as the desire of patrons to have her work collectively and as an equal with other notable painters of her period. Within her own time, Artemisia Gentileschi was recognized as an accomplished artist of competitive talent with many of the other master artists of her time. This was a result of a variety of factors. She had been trained by master artists both personally and through her ability to learn from the works of the masters directly. She demonstrated an ability to interpret her subjects in a unique way from a very early age, adding a sense of intrigue to her work. While personal life experiences must have played a role in her choice of subject and determination to make her thoughts known, it remains unusual for a woman of her time to have been so outspoken. This helped in elevating her above the level of the average artist as she was able and willing to incorporate her unique perspective into the work in often surprising ways. Her images served to help reinterpret some of the more popular stories of the Bible while her mastery of technique continued to develop throughout her lifetime. In demonstrating her thorough understanding of artistic concepts developed by earlier artists and incorporating them in intelligent ways into her own images, Artemisia proved herself again and again to be a master artist in every sense of the word. References “Artemisia Gentileschi Biography.” (2006). Bio True Story. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available April 11, 2009 from Campbell, Gordon. (2004). Renaissance Art and Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press. Christiansen, Keith & Judith Mann. (2001). Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Cohen, Elizabeth Storr. (2001). Daily Life in Renaissance Italy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Dillen, Bruno. (2008). “Artemisia Gentileschi.” Art in the Picture. Available April 11, 2009 from Gallwitz, Karl Ludwig. (1999). The Handbook of Italian Renaissance Painters. Munich: Prestel. Garrard, Mary. (2001). Artemisia Genitleschi Around 1622. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Garrard, Mary & Gloria Steinem. (2008). Artemisia Gentileschi in the Movies. Available April 11, 2009 from < http://www.efn.org/~acd/Artemisia.html#Notes> Kren, Emil & Daniel Marx. (December 20, 2008). “Biography: Orazio Gentileschi.” Web Gallery of Art. Available April 11, 2009 from < http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/bio/g/gentiles/orazio/biograph.html> Lemaitre, Alain J. & Lessing, Erich. (1993). Florence and the Renaissance. Paris: Terrail Press. McBride, Karl B. (August 24, 2004). “Artemisia Gentileschi.” The University of Arizona. Available April 11, 2009 from “Renaissance Art and Architecture.” (2004). The Columbia Encyclopedia. Sixth Ed. New York: Columbia University Press. Read More