The Importance of Body Art as Part of Young People Identity in Britain - Essay Example

The Importance of Body Art as Part of Young People Identity in Britain Body art, although widely represented by the “primitive” body tattoo and piercing, have always been considered as tribal but as Western civilisations accept it, studies have incorporated it as part of the psychosocial aspect of an individual, so much like clothing and adornment. This study in particular, finds out what is the importance of body art among the young people of Britain, how body art evolved from the realms of ethnicity to mainstream pop. Through primary research using random sampling survey, the researcher was able to establish that body art forms part in the individual identification of young people in the United Kingdom. Introduction Some claim that any human product maybe a form of art. Traditionally, art has been heavily influenced by faith and status among indigenous people or tribes, and the same for the Vatican. Art is seen on canvases of painters, on sounds of music albums, on cave walls, books, museums. Others say that art is natural within every individual, and how people express themselves is itself a form of art. One of the many kinds of art is the body art of which instead of a canvas, the human body is used. Not so long ago tattooing was considered only among the “tribal people” (Polhemus 1978) and then, in sub-cultures. But in recent years, body piercing became a craze. Its popularity has grown so much that some medical experts alarmed people that piercing could be hazardous. Only to fan its popularity. A sample of this is nipple piercing, which was once practiced by the Karankawa Indians of Texas and is still practiced by women of the nomadic Kabyle tribe in the Mountain of Algeria. In the West, nipple piercing has made a rebirth, with many famous people having their nipples pierced. Generally the reason was for ‘fashion’ and not for any rituals or ceremony purposes. Today, the traditional body painting, body piercing and body tattooing are part of body art (Rubin 1988, Paine 1994). Cosmetics, jewelleries, and surgeries are now the more conventional versions of body adornment. Even if it is traditional way or more advanced way, body art could produce fabulous expressions. Body art is one thing that gets easily accepted among the young people. Aim of the Study The objective of this research is to present how the young people of Britain perceived and interpret their practise of body art, specifically tattooing or body painting and body piercing. Specifically, it will try to present: The role of body art in personal, social and cultural process of communication Its underlying history and significance Its importance as a means of interpreting the conscious and subconscious messages of the young who practise body art. It will try to answer the questions: What is body art? What is the history of body art? What specific messages are conveyed in the practise of body art? How should body art be perceived by the majority of the society that shun its practise? In this process, the researcher will be able to present a bridge between the young people of Britain who practise body art towards their social circle and community. The result shall also affirm a positive role of body art in popular culture, although at this point, some forms of body art is still considered a sub-culture or still unacceptable to the general populace. Background History of Body Art The evidence at archaeological sites in Africa has discovered forms of body modification. They found the body fragments were permanently marked by knife or tattoo needle and some with lengthened earlobes and necks. Many other practices have captivated the Western world for years. And they say that the practice of early adornment was rooted about thirty thousand years ago. Cultural traditions and religious institutions influenced people. Non-Christian culture believes that body adornment of permanent marking is a positive mark of identify. On the other hand, on Western culture, some still believe that permanent markings and any piercing of the body is degrading or deviant. Traditionally, in early civilization like the Burmese, women wear brass rings to elongate their necks. They believe that the longer their neck is, the wiser and more beautiful the woman. Some people illustrate their devotion to their religions by marking their bodies. The Judaic custom of circumcision is an example of showing devotion. Many cultures and religions embraced body adornment as a part of devotion or statement of their class. The Koran or the holy book of Islam, forbids marking the body. Pope Hadrian I decreed a ban on tattooing in 787 A.D. and Constantine forbade tattooing, for it was seen as desecrating Gods work. “The spiritual meaning of body defacements has been lost at times due to the cultural and religious changes, and yet people persistently and unconsciously return to it as a means of expressing their deepest desires and fears,” (ABA, 2006). Earrings, nose-rings, Prince Albert’s piercing, dydos, bangles, rings, bracelets, , tattoos, makeup, studs, nose-pins, nostrums, lip-plates, ear-weights, branding, scarring, shaping or any kind of body adornment appears across all sections of the society and cultures (A.M. 2003). The Art of Body Painting Body painting is considered as a form of body art, by some as the most ancient form of art practised over 400,000 years ago. Digs from Africa show proof of body painting materials (P.P. 2006).Unlike other forms of body art, body painting is impermanent or temporary. Paint onto the human skin lasts only several hours or at most a couple of weeks. Body painting with natural paints or clay existed in primitive cultures. Some indigenous people of Africa, Australia and Pacific islands are still practising body painting as a part of their ceremonies (A.B., 2006). There are different variations of body painting like Mehndi or henna tattoo that are suitable for all ages. In recent years, face painting has become very popular among children at parties and festivals throughout the Western world. Mehndi is a semi-permanent body painting, using dyes made of henna. It is commonly known as ‘henna tattoo’, and is still practised in some parts of India and the Middle East especially on brides (A.M., 2003).The mehndi (or mehandi) art has been a long-standing tradition from many ancient cultures. Mehndi developed 5,000 years ago in Egypt and travelled across the Middle East, India and beyond. The oldest documented use of henna is for makeup purposes in Egypt. They used henna to colour and condition their hair and to stain the nails. The traces of this practice of body adornment have been found on the mummified remains of Pharaohs. The Moguls carried the art of henna adornment from the Middle East through Pakistan and India in the 16th century. And later, spreads to Bangladesh, Malaysia and Indonesia. These countries have developed their own tradition of female henna body art but also for the same purposes like ceremonies and weddings (Tonks, 2006). Nowadays, henna has been done in many forms including more modern designs. Some think about a permanent tattoo might apply henna first to see if it has a nice look before making it permanent. Others just enjoy having a temporary design (Hudson, 2006). The Body Art of Shaping Human body changes throughout life, but people have discovered ways to permanently or temporarily sculpt the body. To be traditional, in culturally-defined ethics of beauty, people bound the soft bones of children’s skulls and feet; elongate their neck by using brass rings; removed ribs to minimize their waists, and today by means of plastic surgery. The widespread practice of head shaping, is about 6,000 years ago and continued in different regions, including Europe in 19th century. Head shaping still occurs in some isolated regions of South America. Becoming fat or tin is a way to proclaim the high status of a ruler. Tiny waists, small feet and large or small breasts and buttocks are standards of female beauty. The shaping of the waist, through corseting, belting, or girdling has long held common interest. What is considered a tolerable shape for the torso is thoroughly tied up with cultural aesthetics, discipline and social status (B.A., 2006). The surgical modifications of a woman’s breasts are one of the most highly practiced and discussed forms of body shaping nowadays. It allows the reinstatement or amplification of one of the secondary sex individuality of mature women (Schwarz, 2006). The Art of Body Piercing Nose Piercing Leonardo Da Vinci the painter believed that the nose set the character of the whole face. Nose piercing was first documented in the Middle East about 4,000 years ago. The Bible in Genesis 24:22 mentioned that Abraham requested his oldest servant to find a wife for his son Isaac; the servant found Rebekah, and one of the gifts he gave her was a ‘golden ring’ the original Hebrew word used was shanf, which also translates as “nose-ring”. This practice of nose piercing is still followed by the nomadic Berber and Beja tribes of Africa, and the Bedouins of the Middle East. The size of the ring represents the wealth of the family. It is given by the husband to his wife at their wedding. The Mogul emperors brought the practice of nose piercing from the Middle East to India in 16th century. In India, a stud (or Phul) or a ring (or Nath) is normally worn in the left of their nostril, it is sometimes joined to the ear by a chain. The left side is the most common to be pierced in India, because that is the spot connected in Ayuvedra (an Indian medicine) with the female reproductive organs. The piercing is believed to make childbirth easier and lessen the pain. Nowadays nose piercing is becoming more socially acceptable (Polhemus, 1978, Rubin, 1998 and Cheyenne, 1998). Tongue Piercing Tongue piercing was used in a ritual form by the ancient Aztecs, Mayas and Haida of Central America, Kwakiutul, and Tlinglit tribes of the northwest American. They believe that when they pierced their tongue they propitiate the gods, and so that shamans could communicate to the gods (Cheyenne, 1998). Ear lobe Piercing In 1991, the oldest mummified body was found frozen in an Austrian Glacier. Tests showed that the body to be over five thousand years old. The body had pierced ears and the holes enlarged about 7 to 11 mm in diameter. Ears’ piercing was for magical purposes, primitive tribes believe that demons can enter the body through the ear; they believe that demons are supposed to be repelled by metal. In Borneo, many societies ear piercing is done as a puberty ritual; the parents each pierce one ear as a symbol of their child’s dependence on their parents (Polhemus, 1978 and Cheyenne, 1998). “As the Roman Republic grew more effeminate with wealth and luxury, earrings were more popular among men than women; no less a he-man than Julius Caesar brought back to repute and fashion the use of rings in the ears of men,” (qtd. From Ostier, 1958). Lip Labret Piercing The piercing of the lips for the insertion of object is very widely practiced worldwide. Only two tribes pierce the lips with a ring; the Dogon tribe of Mali, and the Nuba of Ethiopia. In the Dogon tribe, the piercing of the lip has religious meaning, they believe that the world was created by their ancestor spirit "Noomi" created thread through her teeth, but in its place of thread, out came speech. The ancient Aztecs and Mayans labret piercing was kept for male members of the higher class. The Makololo tribe of Malawi dressed in lip plates in the upper lip called ‘Pelele’ for beauty purposes (Cheyenne, 1998). Septum Piercing The septum piercing is perhaps the second most common piercing among primitive peoples after ear piercing. It is more common than nostril piercing. The septum piercing is mostly common among warrior cultures. The use of septum tusks is very common in Irian Jaya, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, pig’s tusks are the most popular. Among the Asmat tribe of Irian Jaya the most prestigious septum tusk is the “Otsj” a large bone plug, usually made of the leg bones of a pig, but occasionally they are made from the Tibia bone of an enemy killed in battle. The Septum piercing was beloved by the Aztecs, the Mayans, and the Incas. They wore jade and gold because of their religious associations. Cuna Indians of Panama still practice by wearing thick pure gold rings in their septum. The septum piercing is also popular in India, Nepal, and Tibet. “Bulak” or a pendant is worn. In Rajasthan in Himachal Pradesh these Bulak are particularly complicated, and extremely huge. Septum piercing was broadly practiced by many North American Indian tribes, the Nez Perc tribe of Washington State. Nez Perc, is French for Nose Pierced, and was given to the tribe by the French traders. Australian aboriginals pierced the septum and passed a long stick or bone through the piercing to flatten the nose, they believed a flat nose to be the most desirable. In the Bundi tribe of the Bismarck Ranges of Papua New Guinea, piercing is performed by means of the thin end of the Sweet Potato plant usually at age 18 to 22 (Polhemus, 1978 and Cheyenne, 1998). Navel Piercing Navel piercing is a modern creation and never been recorded in primitive cultures. But the navel has long been known as an erogenous zone, since of the difference among mens and womens stomachs. Womens stomachs are more rounded in the lower part and are longer than men’s, have a larger distance between the navel and genitals, and are more deeply recessed. The invention of the Bikini in 1953 caused a big whisk as the navel was seen as being sexually provoking because of its similarity to the female genitals. The Bikini reform women’s lives; along with the deliverance of their clothes, their lives in general became more liberated (Cheyenne, 1998). Nipple Piercing Roman Centurions wore leather armour breast plates which were created to fit the body and rings were sometimes placed in these breastplates. The rings were used to hang a cape from and this led to the belief by some people that the actual nipples were pierced to hang a cape. In mid-14th century, many women wore low necklines that could see nearly half their breasts’ among the upper classes. In the same century Queen Isabella of Bavaria present the “Garments of the grand neckline”, where the garment was open to the navel. This led to the application of rouge to freely displayed nipples and to placing diamond studded rings or small caps on them, even to piercing them and passing gold chains through them. In the late 1890s the “Bosom Ring”, came into fashion for a short time, and sold in expensive Parisian jewellery shops. These “Anneux De Sein” were inserted through the nipple, and some women put on either side linked with a fragile chain. But it has also been found that nipple piercing was once used by the Karankawa Indians of Texas and is still used by women of the nomadic Kabyle tribe in the Mountains of Algeria (Cheyenne, 1998). Prince Albert Piercing The ‘Prince Albert Piercing’ is named after Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria of England. He was reputed to have had this piercing done after his marriage to the queen in 1825. At that period Beau Brummel started the trend for ultra tight men’s trousers. Because the pants were so tight, the penis required to be held to one side or the other side. To complete this some men had their penis pierced to allow it to be held by a hook inside of the trousers, this was called a "Dressing Ring" at the time because tailors would ask if a man dressed to the left or the right (Cheyenne, 1998). Fraenulum Piercing The Fraenulum piercing is the second-most popular male genital piercing; it is usually incorrectly referred to as a ‘Frenum’ piercing but this is the abbreviated version of the true word Fraenulum. The Fraenulum is the small edge of flesh joining the foreskin to the glans of the penis, in most cases circumcision removes it, though rarely it still exist after circumcision. The Timorese of Indonesia practiced this piercing (Cheyenne, 1998). Foreskin Piercing or (Infibulation) The practice of piercing of the foreskin for the insertion of jewellery. During the games of Ancient Greece, the athletes performed nude, and to avoid their penises moving they bound the foreskin with a leather thong or ribbon and tied it to the bottom of the penis. This leather thong was called the "Kynodesme" from the Greek "Kuon" foreskin, and "Desmos" fastening band. This provisional practice possibly led to the permanent piercing of the foreskin, either to avoid slaves and athletes from having intercourse, or to prevent them from having erections. The Romans used a practice called “Infibulation”, it involved two piercing going through the foreskin or Labia in women and a lock (Fibula) being placed within. The Roman historian Mensius stated that Infibulation may be traced back to the time of the siege of Troy which is 12th Century B.C. for he points out that according to “The Odyssey” Agamemnon departed for the Trojan War, and left his wife Clytemnestra, in the care of the singer Demodecus, seeing that he had been infibulated (Polhemus, 1978 and Cheyenne, 1998). Palang & Apadravya Piercing The piercing of the Glans of the Penis for jewellery insertion is an ancient practice. The Apadravya piercing is stated in the Kama Sutra 700A.D. and the Palang piercing has been practiced in South East Asia for several hundred years. Some genital piercing originate in Asia where piercing has been practised since ancient times. The Palang is a piercing that occurred among the Kayan, Kenyah, Kelabit, Dayak, and Iban tribes of Sarawak on the Island of Borneo. It involves piercing the Glans of the Penis horizontally. The term "Palang" interpreted as "Crossbar" in Iban and can be related to the timber roof supports of the longhouses of the tribes of the area and symbolizes the protective power of the male over his family (Cheyenne, 1998). Hafada or Scrotum Piercing The Hafada piercing or scrotum piercing on the side of the scrotum where there is a crease or wrinkle. It is believed to have begun in Arabia and spread through Northern Africa and the Middle East. The piercing is carried out as a puberty ceremony; it is usually done on the left hand side. The piercing was apparently bought back to Europe by French Foreign Legionnaires when they were stationed in now Lebanon and Syria. It is a modern western invention. Some people have numerous piercing through their scrotum, Sailor Sid one of the early pierces had about hundred and twenty scrotum piercing at the time of his death, and he planned to have more (Polhemus, 1978 and Cheyenne., 1998). The Art of Tattooing Some scientists say that certain marks on the skin of the Iceman or a mummified body dating from about 3,300 B.C., are tattoos. These markings shows the earliest known evidence of the practice. Tattoos found on Nubian and Egyptian mummies dating from about 2,000 B.C., and classical authors mention the use of tattoos in linked with Greeks, ancient Germans, Gauls, Thracians and ancient Britons. Tattoo was rediscovered by Europeans when discovery brought them with Polynesians and American Indians. The word tattoo came from the Tahitian word “tattau” means to mark, and was first remarked in explorer James Cook’s records from his expedition in 1769 to the South Pacific. Tattoos were considered so exotic in European and United States societies, tattooed Indians and Polynesians drew crowds at circuses and fairs throughout the 18th and 19th centuries (Polhemus, 1978, and Cheyenne, 1998). Cosmetics or Makeup The first archaeological evidence of cosmetics practice is found in Ancient Egypt about 4000 BC. The Greeks and Romans also used cosmetics. The Romans and Ancient Egyptians used cosmetics composed with mercury and regularly lead. In the western world, cosmetics were used during the medieval period, though their use was typically limited to the upper classes. Cosmetics were also used in Middle East from ancient periods. After Arab tribes changed to Islam and dominated those areas, in some areas cosmetics were only limited if they were to mutilate the real look in order to deceive or cause hysterical desire. All branches of Islam set a number of rules of thumb relating to purity and cleanness in its physical and spiritual form. Through some periods, cosmetic use was frowned upon. In the 1800’s, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup ‘impolite’. It was viewed as rude and something that was worn by actors and prostitutes. The popularity of cosmetics in the 20th century has made the industry multi-billion in build. Particularly in the United States, cosmetics are being used by teen girls at a younger age. Many teens are displaying the physical signs of maturity long before they are psychologically ready to handle the attention brought onward by their physical image (Wikipedia, 2006). The Body in Social Theory The classical sociology is described by Shilling (1993) as being ‘disembodied’ because it preserves and accepts the mind and body dichotomy. Mind has always been supposed as that which describes humans as social beings ignoring the contribution of the physical human subjects (1993). Shilling describes the body as thus having an absent presence in sociology, cultivating and informing much of its enquiry yet abandoned as an object of study (1993). The traditional focus in sociology on collectivities added to the discipline’s incapability to account for the physical body in social space (Scott and Morgan 1993). Two broad paradigms can be recognized in sociological writings pertaining to the body. The first paradigm, Shilling describes as the “social-constructionist” (1993:10). Social constructionist views of the body notify us about how civilization has “invaded”, “shaped”, “classified” and made the body meaningful yet an imaginary space that remain under theorized. Social constructionism lessens the human body to social forces (Shilling 1993:198). Shilling described the second paradigm as “naturalistic” or “reductionist”.of which the tendency is to lessen the complexities of social life to an ageless pre-social body which forms the biological origin for social relationships and variations. Social categories are thus reified as natural phenomena. Naturalistic views undervalue and overrate the importance of the biological body to society by presuming that social phenomena can be seen as straight and unmediated products of the body, failing to distinguish that social inequalities can themselves are embodied (Shilling, 1993). The four broad historical factors in the West Shilling (1993) disputed contribute to the rise of the body as a “self-reflexive project for modern people” in the period of time he conceptualizes as “high modernity” (Turner 1991:19-22). Giddens points to “lifestyle” portraying the “integrated set of practices selected by individuals to give material form to an exacting narrative of self- identity” (1991:81). Likewise, Giddens (1991) proposed that as the leading discourses of religion, family duties and hard work lose importance at the close of the 20th century, modern people construct a “narrative of themselves” upon what seems to remain solid and tangible: their physical bodies (1991:225). Thus, it came to pass that the human body posses a distinctive capacity as the focal point for the integration of enormously individual and at the same time extremely collective levels of experience (Polhemus 1978:27). The historic factors responsible for the sudden rise in prominence and interest given to the body in modern social systems were documented by Shilling, Turner, and Giddens. Shillings description of how people in modern urbanized societies try to build and sustain a self identity. Shilling disputed that the attrition of grand religious and scientific narratives in the latter half of this century has diluted traditional meaning systems, stimulating in modern people a sensitive reflexivity about life, meaning and death (Shilling1993). The decline of existential and ontological protections residing outside of the individual and the immense rise of the body in consumer culture as the bearer of symbolic importance allowed modern people to place an increasing significance on the body as constitutive of the self (Shilling 1993). Thus the modern individual’s sense of self identity is instinctively understood in terms of their own embodied biography; the self and the body have become involuntarily organized projects, set and performed against the backdrop of a complex plurality of choices (Shilling 1993). Shilling pointed out that in the wealthy West, the tendency is for the body to be seen as a malleable entity which is “unfinished” and constantly “becoming”, or evolving. As “the self” has been conflated with the manifestations of the surfaces of the body then garnishing the body can be assumed to occupy an increasingly significant role in an individual’s identity (Shilling 1993). “Considered in this approach the taking up of body piercing in the West by rising numbers of modern people can be seen as element of this highly reflexive process of inscribing the outside of the body in order to describe and project some kind of visible, tangible identity (Shilling, 1993).” More study of the body within the popular could usefully focus to themes of personal identity construction; specifically on how particular personified practices orient individuals in their lives and how those practices enter into the creation of social relations. Shilling (1993) contends that the importance many individuals place on their bodies as constitutive of the self can be seen as an attempt to keep some form of power in an increasingly complex world. This serves as a separation from the “world-building” activity that is very important to meaningful contribution in social systems. Rubin (1988) nevertheless observes that it is ironic that as Western people customize and participate in tribal practices which is perceived as “a loss of governing narratives”, the copied tribes renounce their interest in working on their own bodies as their “identity” are subsumed by Western ideals of development, technology and progress. As the practice is popularised, piercing the body is reduced only as an ‘experience’. But for those who do, in this period of mass production and similarities, piercing the body serves as a real experience, one that cannot be simulated, one which is individual and unique (Holtham, 2006). Tattooing in Britain As early as 1888 (Buckland), British accounts of tattooing practices variably called “gashing” and “cicatrisations” were evident of the interest on this particular kind of body art. Origins, religious importance and folk beliefs of other forms of civilizations were discussed by Buckland with regards to the practice, including Samoan Fiji gods and goddesses Taema and Tilafainga, modes of tattooing in Australia, modifications in Africa, freemasonry amongst Korannas and Griquas, Congo, Andamanese, Solomon Islanders, Timor Laut, Dmiralty Islands, a form of art for the Maories of New Zealand if not indicative of a warrior, the “ak” or facial tattoo of Naga tribes of India, headhunters and Tring Priestess of Borneo, Haidas of Queen Charlotte Islands, Eskimos of Alaska, Innuits, Karol California squaws, Kuskoquim and Chukche women north of Behring Straits, Aino women of Japan, all of which practised tattooing. Buckland (1888) concluded that “cicatrisation” exists chiefly among the “black” races denoting the limited division of race between “black” and “white” and that the marks were “tribal.” Tattooing in Britain is of such interest that that an elaborate account of tattoo stories were narrated (Sayce, 2002) including adventures of seafarers with Maori Moko, their tattooing in the islands and adventures as exhibitors back in Britain. Ironically, Wageman (1995) mentioned that in 1991, the earliest known tattoo was found in a 5,300 year-old core of a man found trapped in the glacier in the Italian Alps bearing linear tattoos on his back and behind a knee. The aboriginal tribe Picts that occupied the whole of Great Britain until about the ninth century AD interestingly got their name from the Latin word “pingere” meaning to paint (Wageman, 1995. The Picts were said to cover their faces and bodies with fierce designs to frighten away invaders (Wageman, 1995). In her book, Lautman (1994) categorised tattoos into five: Tribal – images that are derived from traditional designs of Maoris of New Zealand, Native American Hopis and Haidas. Paintings, prints, and portraits featured classic paintings such as that of Vincent van Gogh, Edvard Munch and Sandro Botticelli as skin decoration Imagination and fantasy are sci-fi and comics inspired, if not modern animation Neotraditional is based on early iconic designs such as Japanese dragons and tigers, or American guns and roses “All the rest” defy the first four categories or a cross of any of the four, or even beyond, such as the label of hot sauce Tabasco (Lautman, 1994). Reference: About Body Art (A.BA.), “Body Art.” Accessed October 2006 form: http://about-body-art.net/ About-bodyart (A.B.) (2006) “Body Art” Accessed 2006 from: http://about-bodyart.net/paint_history.html Australian Museum (A.M.), “Body Art Traveling Exhibition” 2003 from: http://www.amonline.net.au/exhibitions/travel/body_art.htm Buckland, A.W. “On Tattooing.” The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.1888. pp 318-328 Cheyenne, Morrison. (1998) “Body Piercing History” The Piercing Temple, Australia. from: http://www.painfulpleasures.com/piercing_history.htm Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity, Stanford University Press: California. Holtham, Susan. (2006) “Body Piercing in the West: a Sociological Inquiry”. Accessed 2006, from: http://www.bmezine.com:8000/pierce/bodypier.html Lautman, Victoria. (1994). The New Tattoo. Abbeville, New York. Ostier, Marianne. (1958). “Jewels & Women; The Romance, Magic and Art of Feminine Adornment.” Horizon Press, New York. Paine, Rod (1994) Writing the Body: Containing a most Improving Cultural Inquiry into the Contemporary Practices of Skin Tattooing and Body Piercing, (honours year thesis) Swinburne University. People Painter (P.P.). “Body Painting” California, 2006. From: http://www.peoplepainters.com/bodypainting.htm Polhemus, Ted (1978) Social Aspects of the Human Body Penguin: England. Rubin, A (1988) Marks of Civilization, Museum of Cultural History: Los Angeles. Sayce, Paul. (2002). “History of Tattoo: Part One.” Tattoo.co.uk Schwarz, Rae. “Body Shaping”, Minerva WebWorks LLC, 2006. From: http://www.bellaonline.com Scott, Sue and David Morgan (eds) (1993) Body Matters The Falmer Press: London. Shilling, Chris (1993) The Body and Social Theory Sage: London. Tonks, Mandy. “Henna Body Art” 2006 from: http://hennabodyart.gettingatattoo.com/ Turner, Brian (1991) Recent developments in the theory of the body in M. Featherstone, M. Hepworth and B. Turner (eds) The Body. Social Process and Cultural Theory, Sage: London, p.1-35. Wageman, Virginia. (1995). “The New Tattoo:Review.” Art Journal. Pp 106-108. Wikipedia, “Cosmetics” Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Accessed 2006, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetics Read More