Arabian Oryx vs the Black-Footed Ferret's Chances of Life - Essay Example

Abstract This essay will compare the reintroduction programmes for two very different endangered species in different parts of the world: the Arabian Oryx, a desert-dwelling species of antelope native to the Middle East, and the Black-Footed Ferret, a Mustelid predator that once prospered in the vast prairies of North America. The factors that drove these two species to the brink of extinction and the intensive efforts of researchers and governments to save them will be examined. While many of the concepts and processes for successfully breeding the animals in captivity and subsequently releasing them into the wild are similar, there are key differences between the two. In looking at these differences, it is concluded that while one species, the Arabian Oryx has a future that can be cautiously regarded as promising, the outcome unfortunately appears bleak for the Black-Footed Ferret. 1. The Arabian Oryx 1.1 Description The Arabian or White Oryx (Oryx leucoryx), a large species of antelope native to the desert regions of the Middle East, is the smallest member of the oryx family, and the only one found outside Africa. (Strauss, 2003) Adult animals average approximately 65 kilograms in weight and reach a height of slightly less than one metre. The Oryx has a natural lifespan of approximately 17 years. (Griver, 2001) The ruminant Oryx is well-suited to its arid habitat. Its diet consists of a wide variety of vegetation, which it mostly feeds on at night. The Oryx does not need a regular supply of free water, being able to maintain most of its water intake through food. It is also capable of withstanding a very high body temperature, about 113 degrees Fahrenheit (45° C), before panting, thus conserving its bodily moisture. (Living Desert, 2004) Its white coat also aids in the reflection of heat. Much of the Oryx’ natural range is in regions that receive fewer than 50 millimetres of rainfall annually. Remarkably, the Oryx is capable of detecting rain from up to 100 kilometres’ distance. (Griver, 2001) There is little to no obvious visible difference between male and female Oryx. The Oryx’ long, slender horns, 30 to 40 centimetres or more in length, are a defensive adaptation and are common to both sexes. (Living Desert, 2004) When viewed from the side, the horns can appear as just a single horn, and Biblical references (e.g. Deuteronomy 33:17) liken the Oryx to the mythical unicorn. (Griver, 2001) Socially, the Oryx lives in a matriarchal linear herd structure with one dominant male, who is the only male of the herd who will mate. (Living Desert, 2004) Females deliver a single calf per year, with a gestation period of 255 days. (Harding, 2002) Due to their habitat, herds are almost epically nomadic; a herd can cover a range of 2,000 square kilometres annually. (Griver, 2001) 1.2 Natural Habitat and Range of the Arabian Oryx The historic range of the Arabian Oryx covered the entire Arabian Peninsula, the Sinai Peninsula, and the desert regions northward as far as Syria, Iraq, and Kuwait. (IUCN, 2007) Typically, the Oryx inhabits semi-arid areas, which are characterised by rocky or sandy soils, a low but consistent concentration of plant biomass, and annual rainfall amounts of 50 millimetres or less, with rains occurring irregularly. The temperature range of the region is typically from 15° C to 34° C. The most important food sources for the Oryx are perennial grasses, such as Sewan grass (Lasiurus hirsutus), Camel grass (Cymbopogon schoenanthus), Desert grass (Panicum turgidum ), and other similar varieties. (UNEP, 2002) As of 2007, the World Conservation Union listed five reintroduced populations of Arabian Oryx: at the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in central Oman, two in Saudi Arabia at the Mahazat as-Sayd and Uruq Bani Ma’arid Reserves, In Israel in the Negev Desert and the northern part of the Arava valley, and a small population on Hawar Island, Bahrain. (IUCN, 2007) The Oryx is listed as regionally extinct in Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Kuwait, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and Egypt. Of those countries, reintroduction programmes are planned or in progress in Jordan, Syria, and Kuwait. (Ibid.) 1.3 Factors That Led to the Near-Extinction of the Arabian Oryx The decline of the natural populations of the Arabian Oryx is almost entirely blamed on hunting. It disappeared from the Negev in Israel by the mid-19th century (Saltz), and began disappearing from the northern parts of its range in Iraq and Kuwait before 1914. (Strauss, 2003) The Oryx survived until about 1945 in Jordan (Harding, 2002), but after World War II, the widespread introduction of motor vehicles and automatic weapons exponentially increased the pressure exerted on the remaining Oryx herds by hunters. (UNEP, 2002 and Strauss, 2003) By the 1930’s only two wild populations of Oryx were left, one in the Nafud region of northern Saudi Arabia, and the other 1100 kilometres to the south in the ‘Rub al Khali desert basin. (Strauss, 2003) In the early 1950’s, hunts had become so extensive and well-organized that as many as 300 vehicles were involved in a single foray, and by the middle of the decade the Nafud population was gone; the last set of Oryx tracks were reported there in 1954. (Ibid.) Although Oman, which borders Saudi Arabia along the ‘Rub al Khali, had banned hunting from cars in the 1960’s, hunters from the north took a serious toll of the southern population. (UNEP, 2002) The last wild Arabian Oryx is believed to have been killed in 1972. (NCWCD, 2007) 2. Overview of Arabian Oryx Reintroduction Programmes 2.1 History The critical state of the Arabian Oryx was recognized as early as 1960 when there were estimated to be only 100 to 200 animals left in the wild. In 1962, an expedition organized by the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society of England, with the assistance of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), captured two male and a female Oryx in the Aden Protectorate (now South Yemen). Along with these three wild animals, a female from the London Zoo, a female from the private collection of the Emir of Kuwait, and two pairs of Oryx from the late King Faisal of Saudi Arabia were sent to the Phoenix Zoo in the United States. (Strauss, 2003) This “World Herd” formed the basis of the captive breeding program. In 1972, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan established the Shaumari Nature Reserve in eastern Jordan, with a plan to eventually reintroduce several threatened species, including the Arabian Oryx, Sand Gazelle, and Dorcas’ Gazelle. (Harding, 2002) About the same time Jordan was receiving the first eight mating pairs of Oryx for its reserve in 1978 (Harding, 2002 and Strauss, 2003), the Sultanate of Oman was examining an area of the country for the establishment of its own sanctuary. (Chatty, 1998) Ten animals from the U.S. were sent to Oman in 1980 and originally kept in a small enclosure as part of a graduated release programme that finally saw them return to the wild in the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary on the Jiddat-il-Harasiis plateau in 1982. (Chatty, 1998 and UNEP, 2002) The following year, 31 Oryx were released into Jordan’s fenced Shaumari Reserve. (Strauss, 2003) Israel began a programme to reintroduce the Oryx into the Arava Valley in the Negev with the purchase of four breeding pairs from the World Herd in Phoenix in 1978. (Griver, 2001) These were housed in the Hai Bar (heb.: wildlife) Yotvata breeding facility 40 kilometres north of the Red Sea city of Eilat, under the auspices of the Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority (INNPPA). (Ibid.) By 1996 the Israeli herd numbered some 80 animals, 21 of which were moved to a 10-hectare enclosure around the Shahak Spring in the northern Arava Valley in 1997, from which they were released into the wild after several months. Another 11 animals were released in 1998. (Ibid.) The late King Khaled of Saudi Arabia issued a royal decree in 1986 creating that country’s National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD), charged with restoring the Kingdom’s natural heritage. (Strauss, 2003) A portion of the King’s extensive private farm and the wildlife on it were made available to the NCWCD for the establishment of the King Khaled Wildlife Research Centre, and later another area of land near Taif was acquired, originally for the management of the critically-endangered Houbara bustard. This area was later designated the Nation Wildlife Research Centre. (Ibid.) 56 Oryx from the King’s private collection were transferred to this second location to serve as a core stock for a breeding programme. In 1989, a 2,244 square-kilometre area was 160 kilometres northeast of Taif was enclosed by fencing and designated the Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area. Beginning in 1990, 34 Oryx from the captive breeding programme and 38 animals from other sources were released in Mahazat as-Sayd. (NCWCD, 2007) In 1995, a second, larger, and unfenced protected area of nearly 12,000 square kilometres was established in the southern part of the Kingdom on the western edge of the ‘Rub al Khali and designated the ‘Uruq Bani Ma’arid Protected Area. Since then, 121 Oryx have been released into this area, most from the captive breeding programme, but a few transferred from Mahazat as-Sayd. (Ibid.) Although it had one of the earliest conservation programmes in the region, Jordan trailed most of the neighbouring countries in releasing Arabian Oryx due to difficulties in establishing suitable preservation areas. The area chosen for the release of the Oryx, the Wadi Rum Nature Reserve, is a 308 square-kilometre area obtained by the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN) in 1989. (RSCN, 2007) Due to overgrazing by the herds of local pastoral tribes, however, the RSCN was obliged to wait for 11 years to allow the area to sufficiently recover before the first 10 Oryx could be released at Wadi Rum in 2000. (Harding, 2002) The United Arab Emirates has only recently begun its own reintroduction programme, under the management of the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi. (EAD, 2008) A protected area of 10,000 square kilometres was set aside in the border region between the UAE, Oman, and Saudi Arabia, (UAE Interact, 2008) with an initial release of 98 animals in 2007. In 2008, 87 Oryx of the original group were counted in the area, with additional releases planned. (EAD, 2008) On 19 April 2008, it was reported that the first calves of the initial release herd were born between December 2007 and March 2008. (UAE Interact, 2008) Figure 1: Summary of Arabian Oryx Breeding and Release Programmes Country Year Activity Number of Oryx Jordan 1978 Received first breeding pairs of Arabian Oryx 16 2000 First release of Oryx into unfenced preserve area at Wadi Rum 10 Oman 1980 Received first pre-release animals from World Herd 10 1982 First release of Oryx in Jiddat il-Harasiis area 10+ Israel 1978 Purchased breeding pairs from World Herd 8 1997 First release of Oryx in Arava Valley 21 Israel 1998 Second release of Oryx in Arava Valley 11 Saudi Arabia 1986 Establishment of breeding programme 56 1990- Release of Oryx into Mahazat as-Sayd protected area 72+ 1995- Release of Oryx in unfenced preserve area at ‘Uruq Bani Ma’arid 121+ United Arab Emirates 2007 First release of Oryx into ‘Rub al Khali preserve area 98 2.2 Results of Arabian Oryx Reintroduction Programmes In general, the reintroduction of the Arabian Oryx is held up by conservation groups as one of the more successful programmes of its kind in the world. (Flamand, 1993 and Bertram, 2004) Although there have been setbacks to the programmes both before and after release, no released populations have completely failed. The Israeli and Saudi programmes appear to be the most successful in terms of numbers of Oryx, with Israel reporting 65 animals living in the Arava Valley and northern Negev as of 2002, with another 20 released in 2003. (IUCN, 2007) The Saudi population of Oryx is estimated to be between 540 and 590 (NCWCD, 2007) up to approximately 700. (IUCN, 2007) The original herd of 10 Oryx released in Oman in 1982 had grown to about 400 by 1996, but problems of continued poaching had reduced this number to 96 by 1999. (UNEP, 2002) The population appears to have rebounded slightly since then, being reported at 106 animals in 2007. (IUCN, 2007) The newest programme in the UAE reported 87 Oryx from its original number of 98 animals released, but also claims to hold a total population of 3,000 (EAD, 2008), a figure which is not corroborated by other sources. The small population on Hawar Island, Bahrain, about which no other information seems to exist, was estimated to be 15 in 2007. (IUCN, 2007) In Jordan, difficulties in maintaining the captive herd had reduced to the number to a mere five animals by 1983, but these prospered and by 2000, when the first 10 were released at Wadi Rum, the total population had risen to 313. (Harding, 2002) 2.3 Future Outlook for Arabian Oryx Reintroduction Programmes Most of the major participants in the reintroduction programmes for the Arabian Oryx, in particular Jordan’s RSCN, Saudi Arabia’s NCWCD, and the United Arab Emirates’ EAD, are optimistic about the future of the species. In 2003, the last year it published an assessment, the IUCN maintained the “endangered” designation for the Arabian Oryx, citing a number of factors: A decline in the Omani population of Oryx, mainly due to poaching. An unviable sex ratio among the Omani population at that time, which was estimated at100 males and only six females. In such circumstances, the population will fail without additional releases of new animals. (Strauss, 2003) A market for wild-caught Oryx, especially females, that had not yet been saturated, encouraging further poaching. The questionable status as a free-range herd of the largest released group in Saudi Arabia’s Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area, since the reserve is completely fenced. (IUCN, 2007) In addition, since 100 years is considered “medium-term” in assessing the survival prospects of a species (Strauss, 2003), it can be concluded that, while reintroduction programmes show promise, it is far too early to judge them a certain success. 3. The Black-Footed Ferret 3.1 Description The Black-Footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) is a Mustelid, a family of species that in North America includes badgers, minks, skunks, and weasels. Its name comes from its distinctive black colouring on its feet, which contrasts with its lighter-coloured body. It is a small animal, typically 51 to 61 centimetres in length (20 to 24 inches), and weighing from 1 ½ to 2 ½ kilograms when fully-grown. (Naylor) It is sometimes confused with the similar Long-Tailed Weasel, and the European Ferrets that are commonly kept as pets, but is slightly larger, has a shorter tail, and more distinctive colouring than these related species. (TPWD) The Black-Footed Ferret is an almost entirely nocturnal carnivore, sleeping in its burrow for up to 21 hours per day. (Naylor) Although its breeding behaviour in the wild is not entirely known, in captivity Ferrets typically mate in the spring and deliver litters of between three and six kits. In autumn, when the kits are able to fend for themselves the family unit disperses, and the Ferret takes on a solitary lifestyle. (COSEWIC, 2002) The Prairie Dog, a burrowing rodent related to squirrels and gophers, is vital to the life of the Black-Footed Ferret. Three species of Prairie Dogs, the Black-Tailed, White, and Gunnison’s, make up about 90% of the Black-Footed Ferret’s diet. (TPWD) Ferrets can eat other prey such as mice, ground squirrels, and ground-nesting birds, but these are not enough to sustain a Ferret population. (COSEWIC, 2002) The Black-Footed Ferret also relies on the Prairie Dog for shelter, occupying the burrows of its food source. Historically, large colonies, called “towns” of Prairie Dogs in the central North American plains also supported populations of Black-Footed Ferrets. (TWPD, Naylor) 3.2 Natural Habitat and Range of the Black-Footed Ferret The habitat of the Black-Footed Ferret is shared with that of its main source of food and shelter, the Prairie Dog, and historically covered most of the central portion of the United States from Texas northward to the southern parts of the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta. The area is characterised by wide expanses of grasslands and has a fairly regular variation of seasons, although in the southern parts of the region, which are warmer, these are not as pronounced. The specific habitat of the Prairie Dog, and thus the Black-Footed Ferret, were those areas covered by the large herds of Plains Bison (now extinct), whose grazing activities reduced the vegetation cover. (Hess, 1996) The loss of the Plains Bison, mostly due to uncontrolled hunting, did not seriously affect the vitality of the Prairie Dog population, since the Bison herds were replaced by domestic livestock with similar habits as the area was settled. Ironically, this may have helped the Prairie Dogs, since overgrazing by livestock created more cleared habitat area. (Hess, 1996) The area populated by Prairie Dogs expanded to up to 700 million acres (2.39 million square kilometres) by the beginning of the 20th century, and may have supported a Black-Footed Ferret population of six million. (Ibid.) An adult Ferret, however, requires an estimated average of 200 acres of Prairie Dog habitat to survive, (Brown, et al., 2003) so it is more likely that the population of Black-Footed Ferrets at its peak was closer to three and a half million. Figure 2: Range of the Black-Footed Ferret 3.3 Factors that Led to the Near-Extinction of the Black-Footed Ferret Unlike the Arabian Oryx, the Black-Footed Ferret did not face a direct human threat from hunting or capture. There was a significant human impact, however, on their partner species, the Prairie Dog. The overgrazing of the land which artificially helped the Prairie Dog would be one factor, as was the conversion of some land from range to crop use. (TPWD) Because the Prairie Dog also eats the same grasses as cattle, the U.S. Department of Agriculture published a study in 1902 attributing up to 75% of the loss of productivity of range land to Prairie Dogs. (Hess, 1996) An intensive campaign by land owners and the government to rid the land of what was universally regarded as a pest followed. By 1910, the estimated Prairie Dog habitat area had been reduced to 100 million acres (Ibid.), and by 2000, 90-98% of the habitat had been eliminated. (USFWS, 2000) In addition, Prairie Dogs and other rodents are extremely vulnerable to sylvatic plague, the same bacteria that caused the Black Death in Europe. The disease reached the west coast of the United States from China in 1900, and reached the state of South Dakota within 50 years. (Robbins, 2006) Ferrets are also sensitive to the plague, but it was the effect on Prairie Dogs that had the greatest impact. As Prairie Dog habitats were reduced and isolated from each other due to these various lethal factors, the Black-Footed Ferret became less able to resist diseases such as the plague and canine distemper, and began to rapidly disappear. (Hess, 1996) The Black-Footed Ferret was thought to be extinct by the 1960’s, but a small population was discovered in South Dakota in 1964. (Hess, 1996) The Black-Footed Ferret was one of the first species covered by new Endangered Species laws in the U.S. in 1967, 1970, and 1973. (WCWG, 2001) By 1974, however, disease had eliminated the last wild population in South Dakota. Between 1971 and 1974, a total of nine Ferrets had been captured and taken to a breeding facility in Maryland in an effort to save the species. Four of the adults died soon after being inoculated for distemper and two litters of kits in 1976 and 1977 failed to produce any survivors. The last live Black-Footed Ferret died in 1979, and the species was declared extinct. (Hess, 1996) 4. Overview of Black-Footed Ferret Reintroduction Programmes 4.1 History and Results of Release Programmes In 1981, a dog belonging to a rancher near the settlement of Meeteetse, Wyoming killed an unfamiliar animal, which the dog’s owner took to local wildlife biologists. They identified it as a Black-Footed Ferret, and discovered a small population of Black-Footed Ferrets living on the rancher’s land. (Brown, et al., 2003 and Hess, 1996) The population, believed to be about 50 animals when it was discovered, was carefully monitored and managed, and reach a peak of about 129 in 1984. (Brown, et al., 2003) In 1985, the sylvatic plague gradually spreading through the western United States reached the Meeteetse Prairie Dog population, which the predictable results on the Black-Footed Ferrets. The Ferrets, however, seemed to be disappearing at a faster rate than could be explained by plague among the Prairie Dogs. When tested, it was discovered that an epidemic of canine distemper was sweeping through the Ferret population. (Brown, et al., 2003) The decision was taken to attempt to capture all the remaining survivors in order to save the species. When this was done in 1985, only 18 live Ferrets could be found. These 18 animals formed the basis for the entire breeding and reintroduction programme for the Black-Footed Ferret, and bred successfully in captivity, producing hundreds of offspring. (Hess, 1996) The Black-Footed Ferrets were distributed over the next few years to six breeding and research centres in the U.S. and Canada, to guard against a catastrophic loss of the entire species. A core population of about 240 animals is maintained among these six sites, with approximately 60 more in pre-release conditioning pens near reintroduction areas. (Brown, et al., 2003) In 1991, the first release of 49 juvenile Ferrets was made in the Shirley Basin, Wyoming, and the population initially seemed to be prospering. Over the next four years, a total of 228 Black-Footed Ferrets were released in this area, but the appearance of the plague in 1995 virtually destroyed the Prairie Dog population, and further releases were stopped. It is not known whether any of the Ferrets in the Shirley Basin area survived much beyond 1995. (Hess, 1996) Releases in new areas in Central Montana in 1994 and 1997 suffered similar setbacks. (Brown, et al., 2003) Releases in South Dakota at the Conata Basin in Badlands National Park in 1994, and on the land of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe in 1997 were more successful, although many of the reintroduced Ferrets fell victim to predators. (Hess, 1996) The Conata Basin site was considered a self-sustaining population as of 2006, numbering about 250. (Robbins, 2006) In late 2001, Black-Footed Ferrets were released in Northern Mexico into one of the largest-known Black-Tailed Prairie Dog colonies in North America, but since monitoring efforts of the furtive, nocturnal Ferrets are difficult, the success of this release is uncertain, though thought to be promising. (Brown, et al., 2003) Plans to release the Black-Footed Ferret in Canada, however, have been regularly deferred because of an extremely limited area of suitable habitat. (COSEWIC, 2002) 4.2 Future Outlook for Black-Footed Ferret Reintroduction Programmes Despite the success of captive breeding programmes, and the prosperity of at least one of the reintroduced Black-Footed Ferret populations, the prognosis is not good. Continuing threats from disease, economic factors, disputes over land use, and the genetic health of the survivors of the species (Hess, 1996 and Wisely, et al., 2003) all present difficult, if not insurmountable, obstacles to successfully re-establishing a wild population of Black-Footed Ferrets. One important factor is the isolation of the different released groups of Ferrets. Originally intended to keep the Ferret population from suffering a catastrophic, species-ending disaster, the reintroduction programme has marooned the Ferret groups within widely-separated Prairie Dog habitats. (Hess, 1996) When disease or human intervention affects the Prairie Dogs, the Ferrets no longer have the ability to move to a different area. The effort to protect them might have unintentionally hastened their demise, or at least relegation to surviving only as zoo animals. 5. Comparing the Challenges of Arabian Oryx and Black-Footed Ferret Reintroduction 5.1 Direct Human Factors Affecting the Survival of Threatened Species The activities of Man are the root of the threats posed against endangered species, but not always in the same way for every species. The case of the Arabian Oryx is a tragically simple one of being extensively and systematically hunted to the brink of extinction. The Black-Footed Ferret, on the other hand, was never hunted but its source of livelihood, the Prairie Dog, was considered a pest and was the target of an energetic and very effective extermination campaign that still continues to some degree today. (Miller, 2008) Human competition for the land that makes up the habitat of endangered species is perhaps a more significant factor. Areas for the reintroduction of both the Oryx and the Ferret are set aside and restricted from use by humans, but this seems to be an incomplete solution. In the Middle East, some potential Arabian Oryx habitat was deemed unsuitable for a considerable number of years due to overgrazing by domestic livestock (Harding, 2002), and the area which has been the most successful is entirely isolated by protective fencing, calling into question its status as a truly ‘wild’ habitat. (IUCN, 2007) In the United States, land pressures on the Black-Footed Ferret are even greater, with Ferrets and their symbiotic Prairie Dogs forced to compete with ranchers, farmers, and oil and mining development. (Fettig, 1989, Hess, 1999, Robertson & Pollock, 2006, and Miller, 2008) The remaining available habitat areas that can be set aside for the Black-Footed Ferret are small and isolated, and except for a few exceptions, do not meet hopes for the success of the reintroduced animals. (Hess, 1996, Brown et al., 2003) 5.2 Indirect Human Factors Political, administrative, and economic circumstances also play a strong role in the success or failure of reintroduction programmes. In this area, there is a marked difference in the effectiveness of the Arabian Oryx effort over that for the Black-Footed Ferret. This is a bit ironic considering that several nations are involved in saving the Oryx whereas the Black-Footed Ferret initiative is almost entirely an American project. Seven nations are part of a regular council to manage Arabian Oryx reintroduction, which helps in sharing information and resources and eliminates cross-border administrative difficulties. (RSCN, 2007, NCWCD, 2007, and EAD, 2008) It should be noted, however, that due to deep-seated political differences, Israel is not a part of this cooperative effort. In the U.S. on the other hand, political and administrative circumstances are inefficient and contentious due to the far greater number of agencies and other interests involved in the Black-Footed Ferret reintroduction effort. For example, a single planning report for a reintroduction programme in the Wolf Creek and Coyote Basin areas in Colorado – only the report itself, not the actual programme – required the approval of the Chairpersons of two county commissions, and the managers of two Colorado and two Federal land and wildlife agencies before it could be published as a mere draft proposal. (WCWG, 2001) And the Black-Footed Ferret programme is expensive. The original 18 Ferrets taken from Meeteetse produced 304 offspring released back into the wild by 1995, at a total cost of $12 million – almost $40,000 per animal. (Hess, 1996) Expansion of the programme has added to the costs, without producing a significantly larger number of wild Ferrets. Coordination with local communities and demonstrating a clear benefit from animal reintroductions is critical to the success of any such programme, and beyond the initial reintroduction, good relations must be maintained. (Laidlaw, 2001) This is one area where both the Oryx and Ferret programmes have fallen short. In Oman, the indigenous Harasis people were recruited to help look after the first released Oryx in 1982, which they enthusiastically agreed to do, considering the Oryx part of their tribal property and being prepared to guard them. (UNEP, 2002) But the neighbouring rival tribe of the Harasis, the Banu Janabah, was not included in this arrangement, which caused a great deal of resentment. (Ibid.) Furthermore, failure on the part of Omani authorities to maintain the relationship with the Harasis caused disillusionment among the Oryx’ tribal protectors, particularly among younger tribesmen who felt little to no cultural connection with the animals. As a consequence of these two shortcomings in the planning of the maintenance of the Oryx population, poaching increased. Most of the offenders who are caught are Janabah tribesmen, or disaffected younger Harasis. (Chatty, 1998) Similarly, the Black-Footed Ferret programme has met with opposition from local interests. In South Dakota, one Senator has publicly questioned the wisdom of continued releases, citing concerns from his farming and ranching constituents. (Thune, 2007) And as recently as March, one Native American tribe, the Rosebud Sioux, has filed a tribal council resolution demanding that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service remove Ferrets from their land, citing concerns about being able to properly manage their own crop and range land, and discrepancies in the Federal funding promised to them to manage the released Ferrets. (Miller, 2008) 5.3 Health and Breeding Issues There are three main health issues that affect reintroduced species: acclimation to a wild habitat, disease, and genetic viability. All three have impacted the Arabian Oryx and the Black-Footed Ferret, though to different degrees. Preparing a captive-born and raised animal for release back into a wild habitat where it will be forced to fend for itself is an important, though relatively straightforward task. This usually involves “pre-releasing” the animals into some kind of protected enclosure near the area of eventual release, where the environment and conditions of the natural habitat can be closely simulated. In the case of the Arabian Oryx, a grazing animal with few natural predators, this effort has been largely successful. (Harding, 2002, and Strauss, 2003) In the case of the Black-Footed Ferret, a carnivore that not only must learn to hunt but also to avoid a number of natural predators, initial releases were not as successful until the construction of more suitable pre-release pens. Many of the Ferrets in the early releases fell victim to predators, especially coyotes, or starved due to a lack of hunting skills. (Hess, 1996 and Brown, et al., 2003) Disease has taken a toll on both the Oryx and Ferret populations. The original 56 Oryx given by the late King Khaled to begin the Saudi programme in 1986 were infected by tuberculosis, which has also affected other Oryx populations. (Harding, 2002 and Strauss, 2003) But this disease can be effectively controlled using a medication regime very similar to that used for humans, and animals destined for release into the wild are afterwards disease-free. (Greth, et al., 1994) As discussed above, however, the outlook for the Black-Footed Ferret is not so encouraging. Not only have Ferret populations been found to be highly susceptible to canine distemper, which is universally fatal in the species, they also suffer from the effects of the sylvatic plague. There is evidence that not only are these effects indirect, catastrophically damaging the Prairie Dog population, but that the Ferrets also can be directly infected by the plague. (Hess, 1996) There is, as of now, no cure or effective treatment for either of these diseases. Genetic viability is always a concern in any limited population of animals, but fortunately this is one area where both the Arabian Oryx and the Black-Footed Ferret seem to be secure. The Arabian Oryx shows moderate inbreeding, about 21.7% and somewhat higher in the Omani population. (Marshall, et al., 2002) While not ideal, this is not considered too far above the estimated average for purely wild mammals, which is between 5% and 15% (Ibid.) While the Black-Footed Ferret initially seemed to be in serious trouble in terms of genetic diversity – scientists could only identify five founder genomes in the original population of 18 animals, whereas 20 or more genomes are considered necessary for viability (Hess, 1996) – more recent studies have shown that the genetic diversity of the Black-Footed Ferret is somewhat greater than originally thought, due to careful management of the captive breeding program. (Wisely, et al., 2003) Conclusions The reintroduction of the Arabian Oryx and the Black-Footed Ferret are well-documented and promoted programmes and are often held up as examples of how species reintroduction can work, and why similar programmes for other species should be followed. Are the Oryx and Ferret reintroduction programmes worthy of their acclaim? And can they in fact serve as a model for other programmes? In the case of the Arabian Oryx, the answered is perhaps a cautious yes. Most of the factors that affect the survival and propagation of the species have been reasonably well-answered, with one glaring exception. Human competition for the Oryx’ habitat is minimal, and the designation of protected areas in most of the countries, except for Israel, that host the reintroduced Oryx is greatly simplified by being a matter of indisputable royal decree. Disease and health issues, while at times presenting challenges, have been overcome by effective treatment. The genetic viability of the surviving Oryx seems to be reasonably secure. In most respects, the reintroduction of the Arabian Oryx appears to be proceeding on a successful, albeit slow, path. The only real failure in the programme is the poor management of relations with the local human population, specifically in Oman, which has left the Oryx herd there vulnerable to poachers and in a fragile state. Without the introduction of new animals from captive breeding stocks, the Omani Oryx will not survive. (Strauss, 2003) This illustrates that a shortcoming in addressing just one of the many issues comprised by the concept of species reintroduction can have fatal consequences, and ought to serve as an object lesson for any future programmes. In the case of the Black-Footed Ferret, however, it seems that if the reintroduction programme is to serve as an example of anything, it is an example of how not to manage the reintroduction of a threatened species. Human competition for the Ferret’s habitat is fierce, and the single species vital for the Ferret’s survival is considered a serious pest to be exterminated. The Ferret is vulnerable to diseases that cannot be managed, and thus the programme, no matter how successful in other respects, can still fail due to entirely uncontrollable circumstances. And successfully enlisting the support of affected human populations has been problematic at best, with government officials and native peoples alike criticising not only the management but the entire concept of the reintroduction programme. (Thune, 2007 and Miller, 2008) As no lesser authority than the former director of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s Black-Footed Ferret recovery programme, Peter Gober, said in 1995, the Black-Footed Ferret is “the wrong species at the wrong time.” (quoted in Hess, 1996) Even so, it may still be a success, if only to help future researchers to pick the right species at the right time. 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