The Multi-Step Process of Carcinogenesis - Coursework Example

By The of the The of the School The and where it is located The Question 1 Multi-step process of carcinogenesis The multi-step process of carcinogenesis is an irreversible genome damage or mutation that ignites the development of cancer cells from a single damaged progenitor. The outline of the Multi-step process of carcinogenesis is well illustrated in the process of chemical carcinogenesis that is well divided into four main stages (Grimm, Blasko & Sylvester, 2004, p56). The process starts with rapid or swift onset 1. Initiation stage The process starts with rapid or swift onset Irreparable DNA mutilation Adjustment of the biological effectiveness cell that has been affected. This cells is not neoplastic but is normally susceptible to the control of promoters. 2. Promotion stage Sluggish development in the latency period of between 5 to 30 years This can be reversed This stage is also Non-additive Manifestation of transformed gene yields followed by indirect DNA impairment It also has dose threshold There is augmented proliferation highly referred to as clonal expansion Nonconforming differentiation Advancement of a pre-cancerous lesion 3. Malignant alteration stage Supplementary mutations There are added change of the pre-neoplastic cells into a cell having a malignant phenotype that possess the quality of the uncontrolled growth and development. They also have genetic instability. There is an inheritance of impaired genetic substance to daughter cells 4. Tumour advancement stage Tumor growth is categorized with clonal growth, followed tumour angiogenesis, cell production and loss and lastly tumour heterogeneity. The cells gain control of other cells through invasion The last stage is metastasis Role of carcinogens in the development of cancer The main role of Carcinogens is inducing of cancer in humans or even animals after a prolonged or even excessive exposure. This is a range of chemicals like the fumes of metals like cadmium, chromium and nickel can induce lung cancer. On the contrary, vinyl chlorides facilitate the development of liver sarcomas. purpose of cancer epidemiology The purpose of cancer epidemiology helps in pointing out the areas of distribution of cancer and uncovering the main risk factor that causes and amplifies the cancer cases. Epidemiologic study or research provides a descriptive, cross-sectional, environmental, and methodical studies that attach on the case-control and highly entailed intervention process in managing of the cancer cases. The past 56 years has been described by an intensive research in the cancer field to expose the real nature of cancer and thus provide light on the nature of the risk factor on cancer (Kelvin & Tyson, 2011, p78). Incidence Incidence refers to a number of new cases reported in a fixed period of time divided by the number of people who are exposed at risk. Practically the time duration of study is normally chosen to be a year and is referred to as an annual incidence (Fleishman, 2012, p34). No. of new cases/No. of people at risk Prevalence Prevalence refers a proportion of a population who have an infection or disease at any time point of time divided by the amount of people at risk of contracting the disease (Nathan, 2007, p78). No. Infected people/No. people at risk Epidemiology primary prevention of cancer The importance of primary epidemiology in the prevention of cancer outlines the sets of entailed interventions that steadily shuns the development of the cancerous process. This groups of the process include health counselling and entailed education, keeping of product safety, ensuring of environmental controls. The primary attempts aim at controlling what may cause the development of the cancerous cells but secondary controls mainly deals with the treatment or reduction of cancer growth after detection or diagnosis. Product safety is a strong section of primary prevention since most of the chemicals are the sole cause and inducing factor of cancer. The prevention of cancer, at the primary level, basically invests in planning, evaluation and implementation of the preventions procedures entailed in the improvement of the comprehension concepts that essential on controlling of cancer (Wallace & Kelnar, 2009, p56). Question 2 Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention The primary prevention is normally designed for the prevention of cancer disease or any other disease before it hits. This control is mainly undertaken through control to risky exposures that may enhance the existence of the increase. In addition, it is argued that it may result to further increase on the resistance to such ailments. The secondary prevention is meant for the reduction of the impact of the disease that has already hit. Secondary prevention is normally possible through treating the emergence cases swiftly before to shun possible spread, progression and thus facilitate a halt to the disease. People are advised to avoid re-injury and create plans to enable people re-assumes their original wellbeing. Tertiary prevention is designed to control and ease the strength of illness and entailed injury that typical has lifelong or lasting effects. The process is designed to aid people in solving life –long scenarios, highly complex problems and entailed injuries thus elevate their quality of life (Hesketh, 2005, p45). National cancer screening initiative, summary of the potential benefits and challenges I have identified National Institutes of Health, which is an organization entrusted with a responsibility of fighting cancer in the USA. The National Institutes of Health has a screening initiative and outlays the benefits and disadvantages of the screening methods. According to National Institutes of Health, checking for the states or conditions that are an indicator of cancer is called screening. The benefits of screening are that it helps in the detection and early treatment of cancer. When cancer is detected early in time treatment is fast and easy but when the symptoms are left and allowed to spread all over the body, then it cannot be treated. The appearance of the signs and symptoms of cancer shows that the cancer cells have even started growing to other regions while in the body. After commencement of spreading process then, it is worth noting that cancer develops high resistance to drugs hence becoming very hard to treat. Many screening tests have always indicated that there are reduced chances of dying from cancer if detected early in time. The screening tests shows both positive and negative essence. The challenges of screening tests include bleeding or other associated ailments during tests process. Other challenges are that screening tests may show false- positive outcomes. This refers to the results that a person has a cancer disease, but it is not present. Under such circumstances, there are numerous tests that may follow by. False positive tests always generate anxiety amongst people additional tests means additional harms to the person lined up for screening (Kumar, 2012, p67). The screening tests could also provide false-negative outputs which indicate that cancer is absent, but it is present. Such conditions normally present false reassurance and may prompt delayed diagnosis and may lead a patient from seeking medical acre or help despite the development of symptoms. Other challenges include over-diagnosis. Over-diagnosis means that detection process notes the presence of cancer but fails to detect the rate of growth of the ailment during her lifetime (Ko, Dollinger & Rosenbaum, 2008, p90). Question 3 I have identified myeloma that is  cancer that commences in the bone marrow. From the bone marrow region, there is a generation of the multiple types of proteins that entails the generation of antibodies that make up the immune system. The plasma cells normally undertake malignant variation to assume a cancerous model. After the transformation, the myeloma cells changes their function to start producing a single type of protein instead of multiple proteins. The single protein is monoclonal or M protein. The anti-cancer therapeutic options available are radiotherapy, systemic anti-cancer therapy, chemotherapy, steroids and also biological associated therapies (Roy, 2000, p89). I choose radiotherapy as one of the myeloma cancer fighting or treatment methods. The method has benefits and disadvantages to the various users that imply improvement on quality of life or reduction. Radiotherapy entails the use of the high energy rays in killing of cancerous cells, and it entails the use of radiation that is similar to X-rays. Radiotherapy is used in killing the cancer cells that generate damage in several of the bones. The damage initiated by Myeloma in the bone weakens bones and thus create generates pain. In extreme instances, bones may break or fracture. The inclusion of radiotherapy destroys the cancerous cells and thus strengthens the bones. In other instances, the bone might be pinned to avoid breaking and might entail operation process. The main side effects of radiotherapy are nausea, Fatigue or tiredness, skin variation in the treated areas that varies from presence of redness to blistering and peeling, reduced or low blood counts and occurrence of diarrhea in case belly is involved in the treatment process. Before commencement of radiotherapy, thorough planning is very important especially with regards to external beam radiotherapy. The planning process may take close to an hour or even 15 minutes. Treatment follows a CT scan. The radiotherapy machines are well situated to facilitate ample treatment process. Radiotherapy method appears a good method especially reduce chances of toxication from chemotherapy process that is also applicable under such circumstances. The stage of myeloma is normally disturbing and in some cases may result to extreme scenarios. Under typical cases like weakening of the vertebrae bones, there are high chances of collapsing of the bones and thus lay pressure on the spinal cord. Consequently, there is an unexpected variation such as numbness or even tingling and sudden weakness of the leg muscles. Typical challenges of the case like the poor movement of bowels. Swift treatment with use of radiotherapy helps in improvement of life quality and evasion of paralysis. The most eminent method entailed in the treatment of myeloma is external beam radiation therapy (Jones, 1998, p34). Bibliography Roy, R. K. (2000). Homoeopathy In Cancer Treatment. New Dehli, B. Jain Publishers. Ko, A. H., Dollinger, M., & Rosenbaum, E. H. (2008). Everyones Guide To Cancer Therapy: How Cancer Is Diagnosed, Treated, And Managed Day To Day. Kansas City, Andrews Mcmeel Pub. Kelvin, J. F., & Tyson, L. B. (2011). 100 Questions & Answers About Cancer Symptoms And Cancer Treatment Side Effects. Sudbury, Mass, Jones And Bartlett Publishers. Http://Search.Ebscohost.Com/Login.Aspx?Direct=True&Scope=Site&Db=Nlebk&Db=Nlabk&An=337315. Jones, E. G. (1998). Cancer, Its Causes, Symptoms And Treatment: Giving The Results Of Over Forty Years Experience In The Medical Treatment Of This Disease. New Delhi, Jain. Fleishman, S. (2012). Manual Of Cancer Treatment Recovery: What The Practitioner Needs To Know And Do. New York, Demos Medical Pub. Wallace, H., & Kelnar, C. J. H. (2009). Endocrinopathy After Childhood Cancer Treatment. Basel, Karger. Kumar, N. B. (2012). Nutritional Management Of Cancer Treatment Effects. Heidelberg, Springer Hesketh, P. J. (2005). Management Of Nausea And Vomiting In Cancer And Cancer Treatment. Sudbury, Jones And Bartlett Publ. Nathan, D. G. (2007). The Cancer Treatment Revolution How Smart Drugs And Other New Therapies Are Renewing Our Hope And Changing The Face Of Medicine. Hoboken, N.J., John Wiley & Sons. Http://Www.Books24x7.Com/Marc.Asp?Bookid=18048. Grimm, P. D., Blasko, J. C., & Sylvester, J. E. (2004). The Prostate Cancer Treatment Book: Advice From Leading Prostate Experts From The Nations Top Medical Institutions. New York, Contemporary Books. Read More