Literature Synopsis Project: Smoking in Pregnancy - Essay Example

Literature synopsis project Literature synopsis project: Smoking in pregnancy PART A Books In today’s world, there is enormous campaign against smoking during pregnancy by the public health. However, in the earlier days, pregnant women could safely smoke few cigarettes per day. Laury (2001) argues this change is due to the medical finding indicating smoking during pregnancy harm foetus. The author argues that this may result in stigmatization of pregnant smokers. Public health should also focus on tobacco industries as well as access to women through advertisement. Therefore, smoking cessation should focus not only on the physical addiction, but also social-cultural factors such as stress and poverty. Laury, Oaks. (2001). Smoking and pregnancy: the politics of fetal protection. Rutgers University Press. The book is for those people struggling with nicotine addiction. The author used inspiring stories and messages from real women who have struggled with nicotine addiction. These includes intrauterine growth retardation and adverse health effects, during pregnancy (Allen, 2002). Moreover, it affects the foetal growth and childbirth weight leading to abnormal bleeding as well as premature birth. The author argues the factors leading to nicotine addiction are unemployment, low level of education, increased stress and poverty. This is very effective because it eliminate psychological factors that result to cigarette addiction. Allen Carr. (2002). Easy Way for Women to Stop Smoking. Arcturus Publishing Journals There are several cases that women smokers continue smoking during pregnancy. Maternal smoking pregnancy is associated with adverse outcomes, for example, 150-200g decrement in in childbirth weight and high neonatal mortality rate. In addition, infants have a higher risk of infant death syndrome, language problem, behavioral problem and antisocial problems. In other words, maternal smoking pregnancy reduces the development of central nervous system in such a way that it may predispose the infant to various neurobehavioral problems. Nomura, Gilman and Buka (2011) found that the children of women who smoked more than twenty cigarettes in a day were at a greater risk of alcohol disorder and neurobehavioral problems. Thus, there should be intervention on mother to reduce smoking during pregnancy. Yoko Nomura, Stephen Gilman and Stephen Buka (2013). Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Risk of Alcohol Use Disorders Among Adult Offspring, Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(2): 199–209 Cigarette smoking is harmful to both mother and unborn child because its carcinogenic effect on various organs. Smoking during pregnancy accelerates the risk associated with intrauterine growth retardation and adverse health effects (Chung et al., 2001). In addition, it affects the foetal growth and childbirth weight leading to abnormal bleeding as well as premature detachment of the placenta. Smoking the second and last trimester during pregnancy reduces the placenta blood flow and, thus nutrients reaching foetus. Thus, their children have smaller organs and become ill more frequently. Their babies are lighter than babies born to non-smoking women are. Therefore, pregnant women should avoid smoking for their interest and the unborn child. Chung, K.C. et al. (2000) Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and the risk of having a child with cleft lip. Plastic Reconstruction Surgery; 105 (92): 485-491. Children, whose mothers were reported to smoke during pregnancy, were showed lifetime risk of nicotine than children of mothers who were non-smokers (Buka, Shenassa and Niaura, 2003). The probability of children to continue smoking in adulthood is greater for children whose mother were heavy smokers during pregnancy. Therefore, maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with nicotine dependency among their children. Public health approaches should toughen arguments for mothers to stop smoking during pregnancy due to the long-term implication for children. Moreover, they should develop intervention to help them stop. Buka SL, Shenassa ED, Niaura R. (2003).Elevated risk of tobacco dependence among offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy: a 30-year prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(11):1978-84. Smoking during pregnancy is known to have harmful effects on the infants’ health, particularly on the respiratory system. The only preventable cause of foetal loss during pregnancy is the lack of smoking (Ying, Shilu and Brian, 2001). There are a broad range of health impacts associated with smoking during pregnancy including childhood cancer and cognitive effects. It is obvious that smoking during pregnancy is harmful to both the mother and infant. However, in spite of the awareness efforts, some women will continue smoking during pregnancy. Therefore, smoking interventions such as information and advice should be given to women during pregnancy. Ying Lu, Shilu Tong and Brian Oldenburg. (2001). Determinants of smoking and cessation during and after pregnancy. Oxford Journal,16, (4): 355-365. Smoking during pregnancy is associated with several characteristics such as social status, education, level of addiction and stress. Cnattingius, Lindmark and Meirik (1992) reported that smoking during pregnancy is associated with a large number of fetal deaths and small gestation age infants. Although women smoke during pregnancy, some of them have a normal birth with healthy children, thus are less motivated to change their smoking habits. Heavy smokers are more likely not to quit smoking, but may reduce during pregnancy. Reduction in smoking during smoking does not necessarily reduce the risks by significant amount. Partner reduction in smoking results to decreased levels of side stream smokes. Cnattingius, S., Lindmark, G. and Meirik, O. (1992). Who continues to smoke while pregnant? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 46, 218–221. Organizations Smoking during pregnancy is an important health concern given its adverse effects to mother and child. Pregnant smokers experience greater rates of miscarriage, stillbirth and complications than women who do not smoke. Their infants weigh less than children born to nonsmoking mothers do, and there is a higher probability they will be born prematurely. Moreover, their children are at a greater risk for sudden infant death syndrome and illnesses (CDC, 1989). Therefore, helping pregnant smokers to quit should be a top public health priority. Therefore, all pregnant women should be asked about smoking during clinic visits, and pregnant smokers should be encouraged to quit. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1989). Cigarette smoking among reproductive-aged women – Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1989. MMWR. 1991; 40(42):719-723. Smoking during pregnancy causes a big number of premature, miscarriages and prenatal birth every year in the UK (NICE, 2010). It also associated with the risk of developing respiratory conditions, learning difficulties, obesity, and diabetes. Treatment of both mother and children the complication that resulted from smoking during pregnancy in UK costs millions of Euros per year. Considering all the damages and cost incurred because of smoking, it is crucial the rates are reduced. The government should be more concerned with increasing health expectancies. Thus, effective communication with women who smoke is a key constituent of decreasing the frequency of smoking in pregnancy. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, Quitting smoking in pregnancy and following childbirth (PH26), London, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2010. Websites Smoking during pregnancy exposes a woman and her unborn child to adverse health. Moreover, passive smoking can also put them at risk. Pregnant smokers are at increased risk of premature labor, miscarriages and ectopic pregnancy. These women are twice likely to give birth to low-weight infants compared to non-smokers. When a child is born with little weight, there is the probability of a vulnerable infection, difficulty in breathing, and other long-term health problems (Better health, n.d.). The more the number of cigarettes smoked during pregnancy, the higher the risk of complications. However, quitting smoking as early as possible can result of healthy mothers and babies. Better health .(n.d.). Smoking and pregnancy Retrieved from http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Pregnancy_and_smoking. Quitting smoking after conception is very crucial for baby’s health, growth and development. Cigarette contains more 4,000 chemicals. This smoke moves from the lungs to the blood stream, this blood then flow to the placenta, and thus the baby. This causes the unborn child to lack oxygen because one of the chemicals found in cigarette is carbon monoxide, which eliminates oxygen in the bloodstream. The oxygen supply to the baby is very essential to growth and development (Smokefree, n.d.). Smoking during pregnancy puts the baby at risk of nicotine, while the baby is born will suffer from withdrawal. Smokefree. (n.d.). Smoking and pregnancy. Retrieved from http://www.nhs.uk/smokefree/why-quit/smoking-in-pregnancy. Electronic database Smoking and exposure to second-hand smoke during pregnancy is associated with abortions, premature births and other complications such as placenta previa and abruption. The two sources of smoke during pregnancy increases the risk of sudden infant death syndromes. Smoking during pregnancy generates a more severe risk of abortion and a greater threat to the survival of newborn than other drugs such as cocaine. About 10% of pregnant women are smokers, and non-smokers are exposed to secondhand smoke (HHS, 2004). However, there is a big problem because they do not report their cigarette use or exposure. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2004). The health consequences of smoking: a report of the Surgeon General, Atlanta. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2004/complete_report/index.htm. Smoking during pregnancy is associated with increased health risks to the foetus. Therefore, understanding the reasons for quitting is very essential in order to minimize the risks. Studies have been conducts to show the relationship between psychological factors and social factors and attempting quitting during pregnancy. Ingall and Cropley (2010) found that women were aware of the risk of smoking; however, knowledge of potential health risks was not enough to make them quit. The barriers include, changes in smell and tastes, issues with intervention programs, changes in relationships, and so on. A further interesting finding was that women viewed cessation service provision by health professionals negatively. Ingall, G and Cropley, M (2010) Exploring the barriers of quitting smoking during pregnancy: a systematic review of qualitative studies. Women Birth, 23 (2). 45 - 52. ISSN 1871-5192.Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2009.09.004 Statistics In this multi-centre study in Sweden and Norway, 775 women smokers were investigated. Approximately 61% smoked between 15 and 20 cigarettes per day while the rest smoked less than 15 cigarettes per day. During delivery, 19% had quit smoking, 25% smoked less than 14 cigarettes per day and 25% smoked more than 15 cigarettes per day. The study indicated that if a woman was a heavy smoker during conception, the probability of quitting was less. 26% of pregnant smokers of less than 14 % quit smoking after conception, while only 8 % of the heavy smokers quit smoking (p < 0.001) (Thue, Schei and Jacobsen, 1995). Moreover, young age and low level of education was associated with smoking during pregnancy. The result also indicates 59% of single mothers were smokers during pregnancy, compared with 20% of married women. Thue, E.,Schei, B and Jacobsen, G. (1995). Phycosocial factors and heavy smoking during pregnancy and paraous Scadnavian Women. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health care,13, 182-187. 593 pregnant women were interviewed in a maternity hospital, where 62% smoke before pregnancy. 26 % smoke approximately less than ten cigarettes in a day, and 38% smoked between 10 and 20 cigarettes a day (Mas, Escribar and Colomer, 1996). However, 28% of the total quit smoking during pregnancy. 66% of the pregnant smokers smoked less than 10 cigarettes a day, and about 6% smoked about 20 cigarettes per day. There was a significant decrease in continued smoking during pregnancy (p < 0.001) from 20 cigarettes per day before pregnancy less than ten cigarettes per day during pregnancy. Mas.R., Escribar, V and Colomer,C. (1996). Who quits smoking during pregnancy? Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine,24, 102-106. 3678 pregnant women were investigated in Uppsala in 1987. About 32% were found to be smokers during conception; however, 23 % of the total number quit smoking during the first trimester. Factors associated with smoking were age, unemployment, low level of education. The study showed that those employed, and the tendency of smoking was prevalent if co-workers smoked. Regression models indicate that low education levels, women not living with their partners and people smoking at home were associated with smoking during conception (Cnattinguis and Thorsland, 1990). The reasons for quitting smoking after conception were (89%) and nausea (31%). Cnattinguis, S. and Thorsland,M.(1990).Smoking behavior among pregnant women prior to antenatal care registration. Social and Medicine,31,1271-1275. A study of 380 pregnant women was carried out In the Queens University of Belfast. Approximately 50.3% were smokers, and only 11.5 quit smoking after becoming pregnant. Smokers came from lower social (p < 0.001) and low educational attainment (p < 0.001) than non-smokers. In addition, their partners were more likely to smoke than non-smokers. The results showed that about 65% new the complication associated with smoking during pregnancy, yet the number who stopped smoking was less (McKnight and Maret, 1986). Further, 19.4 % of the pregnant smokers discussed smoking during clinic visits. McKnight, A and Maret, J.D. (1986). Smoking in pregnancy-a health education problem. Journal of the Royal College of General Practioners, 36, 161-164. PART B Importance of smoking cessation during pregnancy Smoking during pregnancy is very common and have serious health complications. Smoking during pregnancy is a public health concern due to the risks it causes to both the woman and fetus (Buka, Shenassa and Niaura, 2003). Cessation is, therefore, important because it reduces the detrimental effects of both. In addition, smoking cessation during pregnancy improves the outcome of mothers and babies. Infants will have normal birth weight. Pregnant smokers are more likely to have low birth weight than women who do not. This smoke moves from mother to the bloodstream flow to the baby. This causes the unborn child to lack oxygen because one of the chemicals found in cigarette is carbon monoxide, which eliminates oxygen in the bloodstream. The lack of nutrients that are necessary for the growth of the baby will make the infant weigh less than normal. The oxygen supply to the baby is very essential to growth and development When a child is born with little weight, there is a likelihood of the vulnerable infection, difficulty in breathing, and other long-term health problems. Compared to normal weight infants, these health problems are more frequent. In some cases, some become sick during the first days after birth. Others may suffer delayed social development or delayed learning. Infants will have well developed organs Smoking after conception can cause tissue damage in the infants, especially lungs and brain. Underweight, babies have a higher probability of having underdeveloped babies (Laury, 2001). Their lung may be underdeveloped; meaning they infants will spend the first few days attached to a respirator. However, when they are finally detached from the respirator, some of these babies continue to experience breathing problems because of delayed development and other impacts of nicotine. Newborn of pregnant smokers are vulnerable to asthma and sudden infant death syndrome. In addition, infants whose mother smoked during the first trimester, are more likely to have health defect. According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 1989), the infants with congenital heart defect were higher in pregnant smokers compared to non-smokers. These defects included obstruction of blood flow from the right ventricles into the lungs, and there were opening between the arteries. Moreover, smoking during pregnancy has adverse impact on the infant’s brain. These children have a higher probability of having learning disabilities, antisocial problems and lower IQs. Chances of infections will be reduced Smoking during pregnancy results to more complications. Mothers who smoke to have premature births. Smoking during pregnancy raises the risk of intrauterine growth retardation and adverse health effects. (Cnattingius, Lindmark and Meirik, 1992). In addition, it affects the foetal growth and childbirth weight leading to abnormal bleeding as well as premature detachment of the placenta. Premature birth is associated with visual and hearing impairments, mental disorder, social problems, and death. Moreover, studies indicate that smoking during pregnancy cause contraction in the fallopian tube, therefore, preventing an embryo from passing through (Smokefree, n.d.). This can result to ectopic pregnancy, where fertilization takes place outside the uterus or the abdomen. In such cases, the embryo is removed in order to avoid complications of the mother. It is evident that smoking makes ectopic pregnancy more likely to occur. Smoking is also associated with several placenta complications. Placenta is the structure that is formed during pregnancy so it can provide the fetus with the required nutrients, as well as oxygen (Ying, Shilu and Brian, 2001). One of the complications is the placenta abruption; in this case, the placenta separates with uterus before the child is born. It is also accompanied by severe bleeding that is a threat to life of mother and the unborn baby. This is a very risky complication because there are no medical treatments to reattach the placenta. In addition, smoking in pregnancy leads to placenta previa. Under normal circumstances, the placenta and uterus move together towards the womb, thus leaving the cervix open for child delivery. Placenta previa results from placenta stay at the lower part of the womb, thereby partially or wholly covering cervix. This can lead to tear which cause bleeding and depriving the fetus oxygen and nutrients. Smoking cessation reduces the risk of developing cancers and other heart diseases. The mother will reduce the probability of developing lung cancers, heart disease, respiratory diseases, and other diseases. These benefits increase as an individual remain more smoke-free. The risks depend on several factors including duration and the number of cigarettes per day. Reduces sickness and nausea during pregnancy During pregnancy, many women will have symptoms of nausea and vomiting. However, research indicates the probability increases in pregnant smokers. In most cases, these symptoms of nausea and vomiting start from the sixth week. However, these symptoms disappear after first trimester. Some women may experience continued symptoms of nausea and vomiting. Smoking during pregnancy increases this duration. Therefore, pregnant smokers should be advised to quit smoking for their health benefits. Conclusion Cigarette smoking in pregnancy is widespread especially in low income earners. Smoking increases the risk of having underweight child, premature birth, and many others. The new born will struggle to cope with life after birth and may suffer due to withdrawal of nicotine. Many pregnant mothers who are heavy smoking find it very difficult to stop smoking. Public health should put cessation intervention to help and support mother to quit smoking. This will reduce cases of premature birth, complication, birth weight problems and underdeveloped organs. References list Allen Carr. (2002). Easy Way for Women to Stop Smoking. Arcturus Publishing. Better health .(n.d.). Smoking and pregnancy Retrieved from http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Pregnancy_and_smoking. Cnattingius, S., Lindmark, G. and Meirik, O. (1992). Who continues to smoke while pregnant? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 46, 218–221. Buka SL, Shenassa ED, Niaura R. (2003).Elevated risk of tobacco dependence among offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy: a 30-year prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(11):1978-84. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1989). Cigarette smoking among reproductive-aged women – Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1989. MMWR. 1991; 40(42):719-723. Chung, K.C. et al. (2000) Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and the risk of having a child with cleft lip. Plastic Reconstruction Surgery; 105 (92): 485-491. Cnattinguis, S. and Thorsland,M.(1990).Smoking behavior among pregnant women prior to antenatal care registration. Social and Medicine,31,1271-1275. Ingall, G and Cropley, M (2010) Exploring the barriers of quitting smoking during pregnancy: a systematic review of qualitative studies. Women Birth, 23 (2). 45 - 52. ISSN 1871-5192.Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2009.09.004 Laury, Oaks. (2001). Smoking and pregnancy : the politics of fetal protection. Rutgers University Press. Mas.R., Escribar, V and Colomer,C. (1996). Who quits smoking during pregnancy? Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine,24, 102-106. McKnight, A and Maret, J.D. (1986). Smoking in pregnancy-a health education problem. Journal of the Royal College of General Practioners, 36, 161-164. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, Quitting smoking in pregnancy and following childbirth (PH26), London, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2010. Smokefree. (n.d.). Smoking and pregnancy. Retrieved from http://www.nhs.uk/smokefree/why-quit/smoking-in-pregnancy. Thue, E.,Schei, B and Jacobsen, G. (1995). Phycosocial factors and heavy smoking during pregnancy and paraous Scadnavian Women. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health care,13, 182-187. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2004). The health consequences of smoking: a report of the Surgeon General, Atlanta, GA. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2004/complete_report/index.htm. Ying Lu, Shilu Tong and Brian Oldenburg. (2001). Determinants of smoking and cessation during and after pregnancy. Oxford Journal,16, (4): 355-365. Yoko Nomura, Stephen Gilman and Stephen Buka (2013). Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Risk of Alcohol Use Disorders Among Adult Offspring, Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(2): 199–209 Read More