The Development of American Film Music - Coursework Example

The Development of American Film Music Table of Content The Development of American Film Music Introduction During the first half of the twentieth century, the American cinema was born in the laboratories, and grows as a means of expression and serves as a means to entertain the masses. American people thanks to three factors: The scientist, artist and businessman. Each of these factors contributed to their configuration, stating his physiognomy and strengthens its power. It became one of the largest industries within the short span of time. In a new art, emerging from science and traditional arts, it became a powerful social factor. From 1896 to 1903 saw the genesis of the film, and successfully fulfilled its three objectives, juicy field of business, a technique peculiar and a large audience (Littman, 2006, pp. 234-238). This paper discusses the development of American film music with special attention to the late epic scores of Titanic (James Horner), The Extraterrestrial (John Williams) and Planet of the Apes (Jerry Goldsmiths) in a concise and comprehensive way using the sources mentioned in the list of references. Development of American Film Music: A Chronological Reflection Littman (2006, pp. 234-238) discusses that the first civic screening of a film in the United States occurred in 1896 in New York. The projector had been developed by the inventor Thomas Alva Edison, whose company was also the producer of the shorts. The paternity of the American fiction film is often attributed to Edwin S. Porter, who in 1903 used an innovative technique of montage in the film 8 minutes Assault and robbery of a train by which different fragments from different shots of the same film come together to form a whole narrative. David Wark Griffith, a disciple of Porter developed using the principles of this panoramic shots and close-ups, as well as parallel assemblies as a means of expression to maintain dramatic tension, which became the most important pioneer of silent movies in States United (Kass, 1998, pp. 78-79). With his works The Birth of a Nation (1915) and Intolerance (1916) began the tradition of film history in his country. The Birth of Hollywood Between 1915 and 1920, the film industry was gradually shifted from the East Coast to Hollywood, where new studies emerged. Film production has become an important economic sector and imposed their dominance beyond the country's borders. At that time came the major genres: the western, detective films, adventure, science fiction and terror, who lived a time of splendour with directors like Cecil B. De Mille, John Ford, Frank Capra, William Wyler and King Vidor, like most serious works by Ernst Lubitsch and Erich von Stroheim-two directors considered the best time - or documentaries by Robert Flaherty. A peculiarity of the American film was the slapstick, a gender-based persecution disparate comedy and gags or comic situations. The person responsible for the emergence of this kind in 1912 was Senett Mack, whose school was, formed Charlie Chaplin, author of The Gold Rush (1925). Other important representatives of slapstick were Buster Keaton (The driver of the overall 1927), Harold Lloyd (The student beginner 1925) and the duo formed by Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy (From soup to nuts, 1928). The Sound Films With the introduction of talkies in the late 1920 emerged film genres: the screens began to be dominated by musicals (with many dance movies, particularly Busby Berkeley) and films by gangsters, who tried two other themes Today: the Great Depression and the Law Seca (e.g. golden Hemp, Mervyn Le Roy in 1930, or Scarface, the terror of hemp, Howard Hawks, 1932) (Grimes, 2005, pp. 15-22). The Decades Of 1940 1950 In 1941, the premiere of Citizen Kane, Orson Welles, marked a turning point for American cinema. Welles abandoned the chronological narrative and created a work of art that shook the cinematic language for his novel use of depth of field, the prospect of the camera and sound effects (Grimes, 2005, pp. 15-22). The 1940's was dominated by black film, whose vision of the world is dark and pessimistic mainly reflected in numerous films police, for example The Maltese falcon (1941), John Huston, based on a novel by Dashiell Hammett; Perdición ( 1944), Billy Wilder, and the eternal dream (1946), Howard Hawks, based on a text by Raymond Chandler. In the 1950's, the spread of television began to seriously threaten the seventh art. The film industry tried to regain viewers by offering technical updates (with screens larger as Cinemascope movies or three-dimensional effect) and costly superproducciones as Ben-Hur (1959), William Wyler. Gussow (1999, pp. B9) discusses that the economic crisis caused by the Hollywood television peaked in 1962, which meant that only the most prestigious directors (as Hawks, Huston, Ford or Hitchcock) could afford expensive productions. Many professionals were forced to run movies cheap Series B (Roger Corman, Samuel Fuller, Don Siegel). Only after a few years, could establish a new generation of directors, including Stanley Kubrick, with its science fiction movies 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and The Clockwork Orange (1971), or the creators of a new school of comedy: Jerry Lewis (Where is the front line?, 1970), Woody Allen (Annie Hall, 1977) and Mel Brooks (The youngster Frankenstein, 1974). The American Film in Present Times Hobsbawm, (2000, pp. 45-53) mentions that since the mid-1970's, American cinema has overcome its serious crisis. Since returning to the major producers operate solely on the basis of the benefits of locker, there was a tendency to produce continuations of hit movies, as the saga of Star Wars, George Lucas (1977 1980, 1983, 1999), with Sylvester Stallone Rocky series (1976, 1978, 1981, 1985, 1990) or movies Loca police academy (from 1983). In recent years, some prestigious directors have risen or developed traditional genres, including Steven Spielberg with Sharks (1975), the Indiana Jones series (1981, 1984, 1989), ET the Extraterrestrial (1982), Jurassic Park (1993, with a sequel in 1996) and Schindler's List (1993), Milos Forman with One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) and Amadeus (1984), Alan J. Pakula with Klute (1971) and president of All Men (1976), Brian Palma with Dressed to kill (1980) and The Untouchables (1987), Sydney Pollack with Tootsie (1982) and Memoirs of Africa (1985) ; Alan Parker with the express midnight Burns (1978) and Mississippi (1988), Oliver Stone was born with four of the July (1989) and JFK (1991), Jim Jarmusch with Strangers in Paradise (1984), Under the weight of the Act (1986) and Night on Earth (1993), as well as David Lynch with Blue Velvet (1986), Wild Heart (1990) and the television series "Twin Peaks" (1990). In the nineties came Quentin Tarantino, a director who convinced the public and critics with films like Reservoir Dogs (1992) and Pulp Fiction (1994). With its black humour and his way of showing violence had a major influence on other directors (Hobsbawm, 2000, pp. 45-53). James Cameron's film Titanic, which was rewarded with eleven Oscar awards in 1998, produced revenues of 308.2 million US dollars until the end of February 1998. Also in Germany, Brazil, Spain, Great Britain, Japan and other countries achieved a great commercial success. It is likely to have generated at least 400 million US dollars and 500 million or more outside the country to date cited above. That would exceed the record of Jurassic Park, Steven Spielberg (1993), which generated 914 million. Among the most successful films of the years 1998 and 1999 include, among others, hopes Great (Great expectations), Alfonso Cuaron, with Gwyneth Paltrow and Robert de Niro. In the 1950s during the post-war years, Hollywood faced a big threat. Living rooms through out America were now being occupied by televisions. With the rising popularity of TV, some movie theatres went bankrupt and closed. When movie theatres across America were closing, studios and companies would come up with new ways win back the audience. They tried things to widen their appeal such as new screen formats. They also tried other cheap gimmicks like 3-D films. This lost its popularity within 2 years (Hodgson, 1996, pp. 123-128). In the 1960s, American films were losing their creative edge to the British and the Europeans. The growth of independent producers and production companies as well as the increase in the power of individual actors also helped the downfall in traditional Hollywood studio production (Hodgson, 1996, pp. 123-128). However, within the decade Hollywood did come out with some very successful films such as Mary Poppins (1964), The Sound of Music (1965), and My Fair Lady (1964). In the 1970s Hollywood made a come back with a new generation of directors like Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and Brian de Palma. These directors brought back the growing popularity of auteur theory in film literature and the media, a development which gave these directors better control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras. This led to some big successes like Coppola's “Godfather” films, Spielberg's “Jaws” and “Close Encounters of the Third Kind” and George Lucas's “Star Wars”. A big shift happened in the film industry in the 1980s. People could now watch movies within the comfort of their own home by using a new piece of technology called the VCR. Movie studios didn’t like the idea at first because they felt it violated their copyright laws. They then tried to take legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs, but they were unsuccessful. Eventually movie studios warmed to the idea because they could make a profit from rental of their movies on home video (Byron, 1989, pp. 45-8). By the decade of 1990s the VCR appeared as a popular appliance in many households. Movie rentals and purchase of videotapes were a big business. The movie industry made a lot more money by renting movies than with sales of movie theatre tickets. By 1997, the first DVD and DVD players hit the stores offering a much sharper resolution picture and a higher quality of sound. Within a few years the sales of the DVDs and the DVD player would be much greater then the sale of the VCR and videotapes. In the 2000s, film studios realized that they could score a profit by remaking old horror films, such as, “The Texas Chainsaw Massacre” (2003) and “The Amityville Horror” (2005.) Even a few Asian horror films were remade and came out successful such as “The Ring” (2002), “The Grudge” (2004), and “Dark Water” (2005). These films were not expensive to make. They did not require much originality, big name actors, or extensive marketing. One thing that most of these films had in common was the fact that they were not favourites of the film critics. By mid-2003, DVD rentals first topped those of VHS videotape. Many studios stopped creating VHS versions of their films, and stores stopped selling VHS releases. Home theatre systems became increasingly advanced in technology, as did some of the special edition DVDs designed to be shown on them. “The Lord of the Rings” (Summers, 2004, pp. 23-28) trilogy was released on DVD in the theatrical versions and in special edition versions made only for the home cinema audience. The high technical level and effectiveness of its sales and distribution network will make the expected American cinema continue in the future its dominant position in the global market. American Feminist Aesthetics and Feminist Approaches to Film When discussing American film industry, this topic is very important to discuss that feminist philosophy of film is a young field that is rapidly growing but that has as yet no distinct disciplinary presence within philosophy. Articles by feminist philosophers on film began appearing in aesthetics journals and anthologies in English only in the late 1980s and 1990s. In film studies, as in aesthetics more generally, disciplinary boundaries are fluid. Writers from many fields – literature, art, communications, cultural studies – make critical contributions on film, addressing philosophical issues and drawing upon philosophical theories. Many questions discussed in the general field of film theory are philosophical ones, and among these are topics important for feminist philosophy and aesthetics: Is film an art, and if so why? What is the essence of film? How does film depict subjectivity? What is the nature of our emotional reactions to and interest in film? How is the photographic nature of film used in constructing realistic or other forms of representations of the world? How is ideology at work in the Hollywood production system and in the circulation of filmic images in the popular culture industry? It would be not only difficult, but arbitrary and misleading, to restrict the label or practice of “feminist philosophy of film” to professional philosophers. It is best to approach this subject, then, by situating it in relation to other fields, including feminist film theory, film theory in general, philosophical work on film, and feminist aesthetics (2006, pp. 234-238). Feminist philosophy of film is rapidly expanding as philosophers with diverse interests turn their attention to film. The inclusion of feminist essays by philosophers in two anthologies on film in the mid-1990s, together with the appearance of the first issue of the journal Film and Philosophy, suggest that this field is on the brink of a period of rapid growth and change (Summers, 2004, pp. 23-28). The past twenty or thirty years have seen important recent developments in feminist aesthetics, tied in complex ways to developments of feminist art and feminist art history. Certain kinds of practices in say, painting of the 1970s, and consequent discussions about the relevance and problematics of essentialist imagery in women's art, have not been so prominent in the field of film studies, although there have been interesting debates about whether avant-garde feminist film practices are progressive, or elitist and problematic. Just as feminist musicologists and art historians have examined construction of a canon of great artists, so also some of this same work has been done in film studies. This involves reconsidering the work of women in film as directors, writers, etc., or by valorizing women's films that depict women and their everyday lives, such as Chantal Akerman's Jeanne Dielman (1975), “a film about the routine daily activities of a Belgian middle-class and middle-aged housewife, and a film where the pre-aesthetic is already fully aesthetic” (2006, pp. 234-238). Writers in film theory, as in aesthetics, also often raise questions about distinctions between “high” and “low” art forms along gendered lines. It is likely that film studies has included more attention to reception theory, through empirical extensions of a Mulvey-type concern with the viewing audience and its experiences and motivations in watching traditional Hollywood films. As a filmmaker herself, Mulvey also had the goal in her criticism of opening up paths to construct an alternative kind of approach to filmmaking. In other writings on film theory, similar connections are drawn between feminist aesthetics and feminist counter-cinema. Teresa de Lauretis's (in 1987b) essay, “Rethinking women's cinema: aesthetics and feminist theory,” draws a more explicitly political picture of the aims and nature of feminist film theory, characterizing it as working, together with feminist cinema itself, to create a transformative social technology of gender, or a new feminist aesthetic. The creation of a feminist counter-cinema is tied to broad political aims of social transformation: “Our task as theorists is to articulate the conditions and forms of vision for another social subject, and so to venture into the highly risky business of redefining aesthetic and formal knowledge” (2006, pp. 234-238). De Lauretis draws heavily upon Foucault's discussion of technologies of sex in The History of Sexuality, in her account of how cinema functions as a “technology of gender”: “[G]ender, too, both as representation and as self-representation, is the product of various social technologies, such as cinema, and of institutionalized discourses, epistemologies, and critical practices, as well as practices of daily life” (2006, pp. 234-238). Much recent work in film theory is in accord with these recommendations, and uses more subtle and complex accounts of “difference,” not just the category of gender alone, to study filmic representation. For example, in a number of recent studies film theorists make use of philosophical ideas about “gender trouble” in constructing analyses of queer representation or such phenomena as women in camp, or of femininity in male homosexuality. Also, much work has been done within the broad field of cultural studies to examine links between race and gender in film and to explore how these factors interweave with others such as social class in affecting the politics of filmmaking and film viewing. This work follows up on more traditional forms of Marxist ideology critique, including attention to gender among other topics. Film Score Music We undervalue the efficacy and power that music, in any form, can have over even the most insensitive people. In almost everything we do and see music is involved in some form or another. Be it a piece played at a wedding, a song played on the radio or even the music played in the background in a television commercial (Summers, 2004, pp. 23-28). The music is always there, reminding us of past experiences, making us smile and feel exhilaration and sometimes even making us cry. It is this power that music has over us that film score composers take advantage of when they are writing the music to accompany the movies. As listeners we often do not appreciate that the music that is scored for films or played in films is put there on purpose to create a certain feeling, emphasize a point, give more life to a character or sometimes to simply add humour. What the average moviegoer does not usually realize is that a great deal of time and thought goes into writing the score for a film and choosing the background music for a scene. None of the music is arbitrary; themes and sub themes have been created with specific ideas in mind and have been put in place only to add to the story and the characters. It is also important to acknowledge that the evolution into the type of film scoring that we are accustomed to today was not a quick or easy transition. It has taken almost a century to develop the specific techniques that are used in today’s films (Summers, 2004, pp. 23-28). When the first moving pictures were seen they were known as silent films, although they were not actually silent. They contained a very primitive type of musical accompaniment that laid the foundation for what was to later develop. As time passed the type of music found in films developed into a fine art containing specific guidelines and techniques that most composers tend to follow. The average person does not usually pay astute attention to the music that is being used in a film, however, if it were to not be there the films would seem empty and as if something was missing. The actors, the writing and the direction is what is primarily noticed in a film but the music is the inconspicuous supporter of all of these elements. To create a film that will be effective it is essential that the film have a thoughtful score, and, as the audience, it is our duty to acknowledge the music in order to fully understand all that is being displayed to us in the film. The following mentioned films are discussed in a concise way and discusses that what makes these film scores epic (Reeves, 2003, pp. 67-78). Titanic by James Horner and Score Epics "Titanic" is an extensive, coloured romantic drama film. Released in the 1997 in the USA, this highest-grossing film has earned millions of dollars and, which is more valuable, great love of the viewers all over the world. The movie was written, directed and co-produced by James Cameron. He managed to make a wonderful, exciting and very romantic movie. Its plot is based on a famous story about the liner named Titanic which was wrecked in the ocean after a collision with an iceberg (Agee, 1996, pp. 56-67). For those times, and that was the beginning of the XXth century, Titanic was a great achievement and thousands of people tried all their best to travel on board of this craft. So its wreck was a shocking accident for most of the people. The movie was written, directed and co-produced by James Cameron. He managed to make a wonderful, but also to include into this story human feelings. So he has written the scenario of the movie according to all rules of a romantic film. The main characters are Rose DeWitt Bukater and Jack Dawson who fall in a forbidden love on the board of the Titanic. Rose's fiancée Caledon Hockley knew about it and even tried to kill Jack who managed to save himself. The end of this story is rather mournful, because Jack Dawson drowns. The story is narrated by aged Rose to a group of explorers who wanted to know more details about the wreck of the Titanic. Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio (as Jack Dawson) is an Academy Award-nominated American actor well known for his roles in blockbuster movies like "Romeo and Juliet" (1996) and "The Aviator" (2004), and was famed for his global celebrity influence dubbed as "Leomania" in the late 1990s. Kate Elizabeth Winslet (as Rose DeWitt Bukater) is a BAFTA Award-winning British actress. She is noted for having played a wide range of diverse characters over her career and she is also highly regarded for her first role as Juliet Hulme in "Heavenly Creatures" (Brodie, 1991, pp. 234-239). William George Zane, Jr. (as Caledon) known as Billy Zane, is an American actor and director. He is maybe best known for his role as the Phantom in the eponymous 1996 film consisted on the comic book superhero. Up to and including 2006, Zane had participated in over 50 films and numerous TV-series (Brodie, 1991, pp. 234-239). The film about Titanic was splendidly directed. The photography is really excellent. Every shot of the movie can seem to be a separate magnificent picture. The majestic views of the sunset in the sea, the scenes inside the Titanic, in luxurious halls, and of course the great view of a sinking liner - these pictures can't make you indifferent. The sound effects of the movie are also very realistic. Besides the speech of main actors we can hear the splash of water, or the music and speech of the passengers in the restaurants. The main theme of this film is the famous touching soundtrack "My Heart Will Go On", performed by Celine Dion. James Horner wrote this song in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs with singing in the film. Dion agreed to record a demo with the persuasion of her husband Rene Angelil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared its approval (Biskind, Easy, 1998, pp. 56-61). Titanic received an immense deal of negative advance publicity for its budget overruns and delayed release. When it was released or appeared, reviews were favourable and commendable. Roger Ebert said: "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted and spellbinding." Some reviewers, seeing the film, realized that the story and the dialogue were pathetic while the visuals were spectacular. Jeff Millar of the "Houston Chronicle" (Biskind, Easy, 1998, pp. 56-61) once wrote, "When the ship does hit the berg, at the one-hour-and-45-minute point, we are immediately compensated for the padding in writer-director James Cameron's basic narrative a shipboard romance. “James Berardinelli gave the film four stars out of four, placing it second of the year 1997 after "The Sweet Hereafter". However, the film also received many negative reviews. Kenneth Turan's review was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he says: "What really brings on the tears is Cameron's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only isn't it, it isn't even close" (American Film Institute, 1998, pp. 123-129). Barbara Shulgasser gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying "the number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two lead characters refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say. “Nevertheless, the general impression, this film has made on people is indelible. It's no doubt, that everybody has already seen this movie, and I hope not once and even not twice (American Film Institute, 1998, pp. 123-129). And I think that many people all over the world will agree with me if I say that the "Titanic" film is worth seeing. The Planet of the Apes (Goldsmith) Planet of the Apes settles for a sub par musical score. "The Planet of the Apes" 1968 version scored by Jerry Goldsmith is known to be "avant-garde" (Petras, 2005, pp. 1-15), and his score was considered to be landmark and innovative and groundbreaking. Jerry Goldsmith's music in "The Planet of the Apes" was considered to be bold and original in the world of film. Goldsmith is well known for hits like, "Patton" and "Chinatown". The film," The Planet of the Apes" itself helped depict the outcome of the music in "The Planet of the Apes" 1968 version. To me, "The Planet of the Apes" (Patterson, 2003, pp. 45-61) was a disturbing, dark, and thrilling movie. The music that Goldsmith provided for the film matched the intensity of the film. His music was very progressive in every scene. It seemed to get bigger and louder as the action progressed. Listening to the music that Goldsmith composed was really mind-boggling. Even though it was dissonant, his score was able to capture the upside down world in which apes were the masters and in which the humans were the slaves. The theme of disorder and chaos in "The Planet of the Apes" really worked in the film. The sounds of the film were distorted unrecognizable sounds. There were these sharp "whooshing" (Patterson, 2003, pp. 45-61) sounds that sounded as if it were a knife that was prominent in the film. The sounds were heightened in the suspense, and lead us to yearn for more and be more interested in the film. The music was very dramatic. Mickey mousing was even used when the three astronauts were running to find their clothes. Goldsmith had repeating motifs and sounds. The themes helped the movie to move along because the audience was able to find out what was going to happen next. The sounds that Goldsmith used had primitive and tribal sounds. One could hear that he used percussion, brass, strings, and some woodwind. Not being a music expert, it was hard to pick out the exact instruments that Goldsmith used. But in researching about Goldsmith I found out that he used unconventional methods to produce his music from a conventional orchestra. He instructed the string section to play with their wood side of the bow, he also told the woodwind section to use the "flutter tongue technique" (to play with their tongue planted firmly in their cheek), to play without mouthpieces, and even using a mixing bowl to capture just that sound. Horn players were also instructed to blow air through instruments with mouthpieces put on backwards (Patterson, 2003, pp. 45-61). The most interesting thing that Goldsmith used for this film would be the use of a Brazilian instrument called the cuika, which sounded like an "excited ape". The theramin as well as an electric guitar was used in his musical score. I cannot believe it took all these instruments to produce such a powerful quality of music that had some hints of an eerie and chaotic, tribal world. I very much was pleased with Goldsmith's original musical score. It was very creative and indeed was a fantastic score. There was one subtlety that I observed when I watched "The Planet of the Apes" 1968 and 2001 version. I noticed that the music in the earlier one was louder and the background music was not as pronounced as the later one. In the later one the music sometimes would be much softer in the background. The background music was often louder in the later film. Things that were pronounced more were simple actions such as button pressing in the spaceship, footsteps, movements, and fight sequences etc. In short "The Planet of the Apes" 1968 version was fantastic. It sounded crisp, clear and it just pierces your ears, the sound was very distinct and very overpowering. Sometimes the music tells the story in the movie. The Extraterrestrial ET: The Extraterrestrial is a science fiction film 1982, directed by Steven Spielberg. The filmmaker departed from the usual stories about aliens. It showed an extraterrestrial vulnerable and sympathetic in key child. Spielberg developed the story as we imagined during his childhood. A spacecraft reaches the Earth at night to collect samples of plant species on the planet. It was discovered by a group of men and the ship takes off hurriedly, leaving behind one of their own. This is an alien being filled with fear in a place so strange, but fortunately for him to hide a child at home with their parents and cared for. Both are good friends. However, their presence has not been able to hide, and re-emerged a few men who want to capture ET It feels scared and get contact yours to come and pick you up. The film won four Oscars for best music, best sound, best sound effects and best special effects, and received five other nominations, for best film, best director, best original screenplay, best photography and at best mount. Conclusion To listen to the score of a film is to appreciate fully exactly what the film makers were trying to point out to us (Polonsky, 1997, pp. 91-2). The acting and directing and the writing are the element that primarily we remember, however, subconsciously we remember more that we give ourselves credit for. A movie can be seen once and already the themes are ingrained in our minds and if we were to hear them elsewhere we could identify them. Many themes of films today are so memorable that we can often sing them on cue, for example, the themes to The Godfather, Indiana Jones, Star Wars, Jaws, Jurassic Park, etc. Each of these films has a theme that we remember even if we do not make a conscious decision to do so (Mailer, 1992, pp. 171-178). It is far too often that the power of music is underestimated and not enough credit is given to the thought that was put into creating an effective film score. As an audience it is our duty, not necessarily to always enjoy, but to at least appreciate all elements of the film making process. The scoring of the film has always been a cornerstone to the success of the film, no matter how primitive the music may be. References Agee, James, 1996, Agee on Film: Reviews and Comments. Boston: Beacon Press, pp. 56-67. American Film Institute, 1998, America's 100 Greatest Films. Los Angeles: American Film Institute, pp. 123-129. Biskind, Peter. Easy Riders, 1998, Raging Bulls: How the Sex-Drugs-and-Rock ‘n’ Roll Generation Saved Hollywood. New York: Touchstone, pp. 56-61. Brodie, Fawn M., 1991, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of his Character. New York: W. W. Norton, pp. 234-239. Byron, Stuart, 1989, The Searchers: Cult Movie of the New Hollywood. New York Magazine (March 5, 1989): pp. 45-8. 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(1981) Questions of Cinema. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 63-71. Jacobs, L. (1999) The Rise of the American Film. Harcourt, Brace, New York, pp. 156-159. Kellner, D. & Ryan, M. (1998) Camera Politica: The Politics and Ideology of Hollywood Film. University of Indiana Press, Bloomington, pp. 34-48. Read More