To What Extent are Organisations Socially Constructed Phenomena - Essay Example

?To what extent are organisations socially constructed phenomena Introduction Organizations operate within the context of a particular society. From this point of view, organizations can be considered as highly depended on social rules and ethics; under certain terms, this dependency can be high, influencing the organizational mission and goals. It is for this reason that organizations have been often characterized as socially constructed phenomena. The relationship between organizations and society is critically analyzed in this paper. It is proved that organizations can be characterized as socially constructed phenomena but the arguments on which such descriptions can be based may be differentiated across organizations operating in markets with different social and ethical rules, an issue discussed below. In any case, the understanding of the relationship between organizations and society requires the following practice: each aspect of organizations has to be analyzed as of its potential interaction with social norms. In this context, change, culture and symbolism, as important elements of modern organizations, are analyzed and interpreted using appropriate theoretical frameworks. The relationship between organization and society is close but it can be periodically alternated under the influence of the local political and economic environment. 2. Organizations as socially constructed phenomena 2.1 Organization and society In order to understand the level at which society influences organizational practices, it would be necessary to refer to certain of the frameworks used for explaining the organizational ethics and structure, as parts of the organizational strategy for achieving the organizational mission. In any case, the relationship between organization and society is proved at the following point: all organizations are likely to influence by the political environment of their market; moreover, the leadership practices used within organizations have, under certain terms, similarities with the leadership approaches of politicians. Moreover, psychology, which is a science focusing on the interpretation of the behavior of individuals as members of the society, is extensively used in organizations for identifying the potentials of employees to respond to the demands of their role. Organizations, as business units operating within a particular society, cannot avoid the influences from the society. This fact is reflected in various parts/ characteristics of organizations. For example, each organization is based on its workforce, a group of people having to perform specific tasks in various organizational departments. Society is constructed by groups of people, i.e. ‘families, peer groups and work groups’ (Tischler 2010, p.127) that cooperate for developing specific social or economic activities. In the study of Carroll et al. (2008) reference is made to another common element of society and organization: the technology. Technology, in various forms, is critical for the success of business operations. However, technology is also involved in the interests of the public. The most common example of this type is the technology used in healthcare organizations. The technology used in communications is another example where the intervention of technology in social activities is made clear. In the context of its mission each organization is expected to invest on technology, which is expected to support the organizational growth. However, this practice may come in opposition to exiting social ethics. An indicative example of this case is included in the study of Carroll et al. (2008, p.352): biotechnology is a sector highly developed the last decades as it can help to the development of effective treatment for a series of diseases; however, this technology is also used for promoting activities which are not accepted by the society, as, for example, the research on cloning. Organizations that operate in the specific industry often have to face the strong opposition of the public, a fact indicating that the involvement of technology in business activities is under the control of the society. Another field where the relationship between organization and society is revealed is the management of conflicts. Conflicts are common phenomena within all societies; in the context of society conflicts can be related to specific individuals or to groups of people, for instance the fans of football teams or the supporters of political parties. In organizations conflicts have a similar form and they are likely to involve in similar reasons, mainly economic interests. Moreover, conflicts within organization may be developed when there are different views on the management of business operations, the allocation of tasks or the rewarding of employees. The methods developed in organizations for the resolution of conflicts of various forms, need to be based on similar ethics with those used in conflict resolution in the context of society. The specific issue is highlighted in the study of Schnabel (2004) where emphasis is given to the need for the development of conflict resolution mechanisms, which are able to operate effectively not just in the context of the state but also at the level of organizations of various sizes. A series of studies has been developed aiming to show the interaction between organization and society. For example, the study of Geels (2005) where reference is made to the simultaneous development of technology and society, as this development is followed by the alteration in the forms of business activities worldwide. The changes developed in the 19th century in the technology used for checking and distributing water (Geels 2005, p.363) are mentioned as an example proving that the evolution of technology has supported the evolution of society – meaning the differentiation of the style of life (i.e. of the living standards) of people internationally. From a similar point of view, Barnes (2008) noted that the socio-cultural context of each country is structured in such way so that organizations of specific characteristics are likely to be favoured more than others of similar size. Reference is made particularly to the local enterprises which usually are more benefited within their market compared to the foreign enterprises, a fact however which is partially justified as a business unit cannot be relied heavily on culture; other issues, like communication with customers, understanding of consumer needs in local market, communication with local communities, should be also taken into consideration by organizations when operating in a foreign market. In other words, culture, as a characteristic of a particular society, has a crucial role in the development of organizational strategy; however, the level of its involvement in business operations is not standardized. The political perspective of organizations is analyzed in the study of Levy et al. (1986). In the above study reference is made to the existing views regarding the specific issue. As noted in the above study, in the context of the political perspective organizations are considered as ‘being in part political entities and that they have many similarities to government’ (Tuchman 1977, Denhardt 1971 in Levy et al. 1986, p.223). In the context of their interaction with society, modern organizations are depended on psychology. The role of psychology in the development of organizations can be critical. In fact, psychology can intervene in various phases of organizational operations, for example in identifying the consumer behavior within a particular market or understanding the reasons for the decrease in employee performance (Fiske et al. 2010). Because of its importance in the development of business operations, psychology has become a core element of the organizational strategic planning process, a fact that is revealed in the establishment, especially in large enterprises, of departments focusing on the psychological support of employees (Sternberg et al. 2009); in addition, psychologists are likely to cooperate with managers in the marketing department of large enterprises in order to help towards the identification of market trends and the changes in consumer behavior within the global market. 2.2 Organizational change - Greiner’s model on organizational growth – five phases of growth The character of organizations as socially constructed phenomena is made clear in the organizational strategies that promote change. More specifically, in terms of the organization, change is often regarded as a complex initiative, being related to both the economic and the social needs of the organization – meaning its need for profits but also its need for effective communication with the stakeholders. The above issues would be made clearer by referring to a well-known model of organizational growth, the Greiner’s model. The above model is used for explaining the phases of growth within modern organizations. In this way, the level and the sequence of changes, as developed across the organization, can be identified and evaluated avoiding major organizational risks. The specific model is presented in Graph 1, Appendix. The model of Greiner on organizational growth is based on the following perspectives: a) the growth is continuous – no gaps can be identified in the relevant process, b) the growth is important – the growth of organization between a particular node (meaning the points highlighted in the model) and the next one is significant – taking into consideration the increase of the organization’s size, as combined with certain differences in the criteria used for governing the organization, c) the growth involves in different organizational areas – a word used not only for explaining the position of a firm in terms of geography but also for reflecting its strategic priorities – as these priorities can be identified in the Greiner’s model in Graph 1. In the Greiner’s model of five phases of growth, the relationship between the organization and the society is made clear. Indeed, in accordance with the above model, collaboration, creativity and coordination can ensure the high growth of organization. However, the above three concepts reflect specific modes of behaviour within a particular society. In other words, behavioural patterns common in social relations are also likely to be used within the context of organizations in order to support the development of organizational performance. On the other hand, Rao et al. (1999) note that the framework of Greiner on organizational growth incorporates certain ideas which are crucial for understanding the social aspects of organization: a) the above model refers to the potential existence of turbulences in the organizational environment (internal or external); such perspective is common with the society, where similar conflicts are likely to be developed, under the influence of contradicting interests, b) as in society, the conflicts in the internal or the external organizational environment can lead to the improvement of the above environment, c) following the example of society, modern organizations are characterized by continuous changes; d) as in the case of society, organizations are expected to have long periods of continuous growth, with no sign of decline in regard to their performance (Rao et al. 1999), e) evolution in organizations is usually unexpected; it is during these evolutions, i.e. unexpected events that key changes in organizations are promoted; the specific phenomenon is common in society, where important social changes are often developed without their details to be appropriately published. In accordance with Ingols et al. (2011) the model of Greiner has become popular for its simplicity (Ingols et al. 2011, p.83); however, not all organizations can follow the above model (Ingols et al 2011), mostly because the balance in power between small and large enterprises has changed under the influence of Internet (Ingols et al 2011) which offer the chance to small firms to increase their competitiveness and reach costumers in the global market even if they do not have the funds required for establishing an operational unit in the foreign country involved. In other words, as in the case of society, the promotion of change in organizations is depended on the power to support these changes, as the term power is related to the funds and resources available, i.e. the size of the organizations involved. Also, like in society, in organizations changes are decided in accordance with the views of managers responsible for the particular tasks; these views, as noted in the study of Ingols et al. (2011) are likely to be changed periodically causing instability in their organization’s plans. 2.3 Organization and culture Culture can highly influence business operations. In the study of Lega et al. (2005) it is revealed that the strategies of healthcare organizations internationally are likely to be influenced by the local culture; as a result when the change of these strategies is required, the national culture and ethics need to be taken into consideration – even if the culture of the country of origin (meaning the country where the healthcare organization has its basis) is different from that of the host country. This fact indicates the high involvement of society in various phases of business operations, including the strategic planning process. From a similar point of view, Barnes (2008) noted that the socio-cultural context of each country is structured in such way so that organizations of specific characteristics are likely to be favoured more than others of similar size. Reference is made particularly to the local enterprises which usually are more benefited within their market compared to the foreign enterprises, a fact however which is partially justified as a business unit cannot be relied heavily on culture; other issues, like communication with customers, understanding of consumer needs in local market, communication with local communities, should be also taken into consideration by organizations when operating in a foreign market. In other words, culture, as a characteristic of a particular society, has a crucial role in the development of organizational strategy; however, the level of its involvement in business operations is not standardized. The power of culture to influence the social relations but also the organizational strategic planning process is reflected in the following fact: through the decades different scientific principles and frameworks have been developed under the influence of different socio-cultural frameworks. The theoretical frameworks that most reflect this phenomenon are the following ones: the theory on Gravity (Newton) – as an expression of the old-physics, the theory of relativity (Einstein) – the new-physics, the ‘Old Organization’ Theory of Taylor and the ‘New Organization’ Theory of Morgan – based mainly on the metaphor as a key organizational element. 2.4 Symbolism as related to the organization The character of modern organizations as socially constructed phenomena is mainly revealed through symbolism – which is often described as ‘metaphor’. Metaphors have the advantage that they do not need to be explicit and can help to avoid conflict within organizations. For instance, when using a metaphor for expressing his opposition to an existing organizational practice, an employee can inform his supervisor on the particular problem without causing turbulences or accusing a specific colleague. The supervisor will be able to check the issue and identify the source of the problem avoiding further failures or risks – for instance if a problem of continuous loss of data exists in the IT department of a particular organization the report of the problem to the supervisor using a metaphor would be an effective method for avoiding turbulences in the workplace and protect the organization. In accordance with Schultz (1995) symbolism is likely to reflect the organizational culture, meaning that in each organization symbolism has different forms. From a similar point of view, Jones (1996) notes that symbolism can be identified in many business operations, for instance in the celebrations made in the workplace for the promotion of a colleague or the events organized periodically for celebrating important organizational achievements. In accordance with Strati (1998) symbolism in organizations can be reflected in the following fact: quite commonly extensive preparation is made for the development of specific organizational plans without all the work done to be necessary; it is noted that the effort made regarding such activities ‘symbolizes the intention to act’ (Strati 1998) increasing the credibility of the plan produced. 3. Conclusion The development of organizations worldwide has been related to their ability to understand the social and cultural characteristics of the host countries and develop strategies, which are flexible enough in order to be alternated when such need exists. In any case, it has been made clear that organizations, as society, can be influenced by a series of cultural ethics and rules as established in each country globally. The forms of interaction between organizations and such elements/ rules can vary, as explained above. The dependency of organizations on these rules can led to the assumption that organizations are socially constructed phenomena, not being able to be autonomous but they rather have to align their strategies and practices with the rules and the ethics of their social environment. However, even if oppositions exist between an organization’s rules and the social ethics of its market, the interaction between the organization and the society cannot be considered as terminated but just alternated, maybe under the pressure of the local or the global economic turbulences which demand independency of the organization’s economic policies from the social values and ethics. References Barnes, N. (2008). 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(1998) Organizational Symbolism as a social construction: A perspective from the sociology of knowledge Human Relations; New York; November 1998 ?ischler, H. (2010). Introduction to Sociology. Belmont: Cengage Learning Appendix Graph 1 – Greiner’s model - five phases of growth (Source: http://www.themanager.org/strategy/ManagingGrowthI-Dateien/image002.gif) Read More