Female Genital Circumcision or Mutilation - Research Paper Example

Female genital circumcision or mutilation This paper is a review of female genital mutilation (FGM) being practiced all over the world. Originally confined to Muslim and African countries, the practice has spread to the rest of the world due to migration of the population originally practicing FGM to the western countries though the western countries also had practiced FGM in milder forms like chastity belts in order to preserve their women’s chastity. They had also been indulging in actual FGM but not to the extreme. The FGM is cruel and a mockery on human rights initiatives given the fact that it is still in practice. The women are still subjugated and made docile in order to be the minions of men forever. This smacks of the wider agenda on the part of men in those countries to keep silent on the practice so that their supremacy is not threatened. Introduction Female genital mutilation is (FGM) a procedure forcibly practiced on girls for non-medical reasons mainly prompted by religious beliefs. This age-old practice has been under severe criticisms for the past more than two decades. It is a deliberate assault on the female body that is physically and psychologically damaging. In the era of human rights, the practice is highly barbaric and condemnable. This paper aims to make a systematic review of literature on the subject ranging from age-old practice, human rights violations to health ramifications. The review should rest with the latest status of the practice and conclude whether it has been completely eradicated, on the decline, on the increase instead or in the same old status and to ascertain what health authorities and human rights enforcement have achieved so far in containing the practice. Literature Review Mechanism of FGM Various practices include Sunna, Modified Sunna, Clitoridectomy/excision and the most extreme form of infibulations. In Sunna which means tradition in Arabic, prepuce of the clitoris is prickled, slit or removed In Modified Sunna, clitoris is either partially or totally excised. In Clitoridectomy or excision, clitoris is partly or entirely removed as also all parts or part of the labia minora. The extensive scar tissue as a result occludes vaginal opening. In the most extreme form called infibulation or pharoanic circumcision, clitoris is removed and labia minora is excised along with its inner layers (Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). The last of these procedures is followed by stitching of the raw edges with cat gut or even thorns to make the edges adhere together so as to form a scar issue as a bridge to cover the vaginal opening. And some stuff such as silver of wood or straw is inserted into the vagina to prevent complete occlusion so as to a leave a passage for urination and menstrual flow (Lightfoor-Klein, 1989). The girl is immobilized for forty days so as to aid in the formation of scar tissue thus closing the vagina as aforesaid only to be opened by her husband’s penis after marriage. Sometimes, he uses his flint or knife for the purpose or a midwife cuts open the girl’s vagina for having coitus with her husband. After the pregnancy and delivery, the above said procedure is followed and vagina reopened for each pregnancy for the rest of the girl’s productive period (Lax, 2000). Prevalence This violation of bodily integrity and human rights is performed on non-consenting girls mainly in the Third World by women purportedly to make the girls marriageable as it is a prerequisite for a man to marry a girl. Some 100 to 130 millions of girls lived during 1990s with this disfigurement and this figure was expected to go up by two millions shortly thereafter in African and some Asian countries. The figure which itself is staggering actually is more in realty. This had been kept off public knowledge even by anthropologists, medical professionals, psychologists and missionaries. FGM is believed have been in practice for centuries with its origin traceable to Nubia and later to ancient Egypt and then spreading to African and Middle East nations and later to Southeast Asia and some parts of South America. It crept into aboriginal communities of Australia also. Girls grow in these societies without being aware of the D-day. On the D-day, the girls are caught unawares and forced to undergo this procedure after initial ceremony of dancing and singing. The girls’ legs are tied after they are being forced to lie down on mats and the legs are spread and held fast for the “professional cutter to perform the procedure without anesthesia and without sterile conditions. The irony is that elder women perform this on their young ones with a sense of righteousness. Many have died due to profuse bleeding (Lax, 2000). The practice also was prevalent in the western world in the lesser form of chastity belts to ensure virginity, though actual FGM also was in practice selectively at the behest of “pater familas”. Later in England during 1850s, Clitoridectomy was introduced by a gynecologist Issac Baker Brown to prevent masturbation believed to have been the cause for insanity, nymphomania, hysteria and epilepsy etc. However anesthesia was used for the operation. This practice subjugated women without the feeling of sexuality thus managing to reprogram them for being docile and remaining sexually dulled (Lax, 2000). Medicalization In keeping with the tradition of virtues of FGM, Arab countries have started performing it as a medical procedure so as to lessen the painful process for girls. Thus, in 1995, an Egyptian survey revealed 13 % of girls circumcised were done so with the aid of a doctor. By 2002, it increased to 46 %. However, medical profession holds the view that FGM is unacceptable and should be stopped at all costs. FGM can cause death though there are no studies available for child mortality due to FGM caused bleeding, pain, trauma and infection. Injury can be caused to adjacent tissue of urethra, vagina, perineum, and rectum. Since clitoral artery is cut, hemorrhage takes place. Shock can develop in girls due to sudden blood loss. Tetanus can develop due to performance of FGM under unsterile conditions. Uterine retention occurs in acute form due to girl’s of reluctance to pass urine for fear of pain. Fracture of the clavicle, femur or humerus or dislocation of hip joint is possible if the girl is subjected to heavy pressure against her struggling during the procedure. These are short term complications which can happen immediately after the operation. Similarly, there are as many as 15 long-term complications ranging from damaged urethral opening to problems in pregnancy and child birth due to occlusion of vaginal opening and prevention of dilation of birth canal as a result. Sexual complications are, malfunctioning of female genitalia as clitoris is responsible for development of physical and mental sexuality having been supplied with large number of sensory nerve receptors at the tip as also for labia minora. Frigidity will develop. There will be no orgasm. Coital difficulties and marital conflicts can also occur (Morrone, Hercogova and Lotti, 2008). Genital self-mutilation In modern times, women resort to genital self-mutilation which occurs in the cases of personality disorders. Though women who are psychic self-mutilate, they often leave their genital area unharmed (Ajibona and Hartwell, N.D). Consequences As early as in 1987, it was found that 85 % of women circumcised were likely to have one or more long-term medical complications requiring medical attention during their life time. 400 women who were interviewed gave the following reasons of their FGM. 257 stated that it was their tradition while 105 mentioned that it was a socially accepted practice. 51 attributed to religion while 12 felt that it increased their chances to marry. 11 said it was for preservation of their virginity. 10 stated that it promoted female hygiene. 6 others said it prevented promiscuity while 3 stated that in increased fertility. Two of them said it was to please their husbands and lastly one woman said that FGM was to maintain health (Wright, 1996). Conclusion The review of literature on FGM has shown that advocates against the practice have been quite vocal but without much impact on the health and human rights authorities. There are accusations that medical professions have been silent on the issue as if there is a conspiracy to perpetuate the practice. It is quite surprising that western world had also come to permit the practice in their bid to subjugate women and keep them as a vessel for their own sexual pleasure without reciprocity and in their bid to prevent their women to seek other sexual partners. Feminist have been successful however in bringing about an awareness of FGM among the people of the modern world. Yet there are no perceptible initiatives on the part of the WHO to stop the practice. Thus, the purpose of the literature review being to ascertain the current status of the FGM practice, it is quite disappointing to note that crusade against FGM is yet to gain momentum. Works cited Ajibona O.O. and Hartwell R. (No date) Feigned miscarriage by genital self-mutilation in a hysterectomised patient. Gynaecology case reports, Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. Carfax Publishing. Lax Ruth F (2000) Socially Sanctioned Violence Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation Is Its Most Brutal Form Clinical Social Work Journal. 28 (4). Lightfoot-Klein, H. (1989). Prisoners of Ritual. An Odyssey into Female Genital Circumcision. New York: Harrington Park Press. Cited in Lax Ruth F (2000) Socially Sanctioned Violence Against Women: Female Genital Mutilation Is Its Most Brutal Form, Clinical Social Work Journal. 28 (4). Morrone Aldo, Hercogova Jana and Lotti Torello. (2002) Stop female genital mutilation: appeal to the international dermatologic community. International Journal of Dermatology, 41, p 253-263 Wright Jane, (1996) Female genital mutilation: an overview. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 24 p 251-259. Read More