Maltreatment and the Developing Child - Article Example

Running head: Maltreatment and the developing child Maltreatment and the Developing Child (school) Maltreatment and the Developing Child Introduction The developing child is one of the most vulnerable individuals in the world. This child is like a blank canvass, ready to be written on, and openly vulnerable to all manners of manipulations. Suffice it to say that a developing child is likely to be highly influenced by his environment and by the way he is treated by his caregivers and other people he comes into contact with. The development stages of a child are highly progressive and based on theorists like Freud, Sullivan, Erikson, etc., these stages consist of developmental challenges which, if unresolved, affect the child’s mental, emotional, social, and even physical development. The caregivers’ (mostly, the parents) role therefore is crucial to the development of the child. Without proper care and attention, the child would likely suffer from malnourishment, emotional and mental maladjustment issues. Based on these considerations, this paper shall now discuss the possible impact of extreme deprivation and neglect on the development of a child. It shall use examples of cases and case studies in order to enhance knowledge on this issue. Discussion The nature and the nurture debate have set forth the importance of both genetics and experience in the development of our brain. In generally accepted terms, medical specialists emphasize that nature or genes are responsible for the basic wiring plan, the formation of the cells, and the connections between the different brain regions (Oliver, 2007). Our experiences (nurture) are responsible “for fine-tuning those connections, helping each child adapt to the particular environment (culture, family, peer group) to which he or she belongs” (Oliver, 2007, p. 1). Even as the cells of our brain are already developed and we cannot do anything about how they are developed, the environment still has an influence on the development of the brain. Based on years of research on neuroscience, an infant’s experience usually has a permanent impact on the wirings of the brain (Eliot, as cited by Oliver, 2007). Upon a child’s birth and subsequent development and growth, his brain cells are fired and wired together. In the process, cells that are highly active are preserved and strengthened, and other cells or synapses which are not active are pruned away (Oliver, 2007). A child’s brain therefore requires constant stimulation in order to develop its full potential. “Their best learning is from being highly attuned to human stimuli – interacting with your face, voice, and touch. Singing, talking, and reading to babies are ideal ways of stimulating their senses” (Oliver, 2007, p. 1). Babies are highly reactive to motion – bouncing and being carried – and these types of interaction cannot be replaced by even the most stimulating toys (Oliver, 2007). Their development is also best achieved through two-way interactions. Children learn language when caregivers, peers, and siblings interact with them about feelings, objects, and events. “They also learn it through our feedback – when parents mimic their baby’s babbling. Loving dialogues is the single proven way to enrich children’s later mental ability” (Oliver, 2007, p. 2). Considering these premises, the impact of maltreatment on the child shall now be considered. An article by Glaser (2007) discusses that neglect and failure in the environmental stimulation of the brain during crucial developmental stages can result to deficits in some normal functions. In relation to interpersonal development, Glaser (2007) cites evidence which reveal that some adoptees coming from neglectful orphanages do not develop stranger wariness and selective attachments. These children have been known to be socially open and uninhibited in their interactions. They do not discriminate between adults and they do not check in with their adoptive parents during times of anxiety (Glaser, 2007). Their behaviour also indicates that they can easily run off or go with strangers without assessing the danger posed on them. Because of emotional neglect, these children have trouble managing their emotions and may respond in overly excitable ways to minor triggers (Glaser, 2007). A study by O’Connor (et.al., as cited by Zeanah, 2009) sought to determine the impact of maltreatment and neglect on adoptees 0 to 42 months old. Their study was able to exhibit attachment disorders with some of the children suffering from socially uninhibited behaviour or indiscriminate behaviour (Zeanah, 2009). Moreover, with increased length of time in these neglectful institutions, the duration of time for these children to display indiscriminate behaviour also increased. Glaser (2007) also discusses how harmful early childhood experiences can cause significant negative effects on the brain. Harmful experiences which include exposure to angry faces and violence “lead to amplification of synapses and neuronal networks associated with negative affect and under-use and pruning of those involved in positive affect and approach behavior” (Glaser, 2007, p. 4). In contrast to children who were not exposed to violence and abuse during their early childhood years, children who were abused were more intense in their response to ECG while focusing on angry faces (Glaser, 2007). These children were also likely to interpret sad or frightened faces or expressions as angry ones. Most of them were also likely to be physically aggressive and to have trouble expressing their behaviour (Glaser, 2007). In effect, angry affect “carries a different meaning for maltreated children and elicits a physiologically measurable different response” (Glaser, 2007, p. 4). This situation is considered maladaptive when applied in non-abusive situations beyond the child’s developmental years. In a series of case studies conducted by Dyson (1990), revealed the effects of early exposure to violence on the developing child. In the case of Steve, his mother was murdered when he was 15 years old and this triggered his aggressive behaviour and anger; it also triggered his desire to kill the person who murdered his mother. He was feared by adults and even by his peers; he trusted no one; and did not perform well in school (Dyson, 1990). He was defiant of any adult authority and he was also rude, hostile and aggressive. In reviewing his history and more particularly his childhood, Dyson (1990) was able to establish that Steve was exposed at a very early age to violence and aggression. Steve’s aunt was shot when he was a child, so was his uncle; another aunt was shot by her jealous husband and still another aunt died of a drug overdose (Dyson, 1990). Through this case we can detect the impact of a violent childhood on the development of children and how these children usually take on the qualities of the environment and experiences to which they are exposed at a very young age. In a study by Dodge (et.al., 2002), the authors sought to determine the long-term effects of maltreatment on the psychological, behavioural, and academic problems of adolescents. The authors randomly chose about 500 children for their study, assessing their school grades, test scores, absences, suspensions, aggression, anxiety, depression, drug use, trouble with police, gang membership, running away, pregnancy, and education goals (Dodge, 2002). The authors were able to establish that adolescents who were abused during their early childhood years had lower grades and test scores; were absent from school twice as many days; and were suspended more than twice as compared to adolescents who were not maltreated (Dodge, 2002). Their levels of aggression, anxiety/depression, dissociation, delinquent behaviour, social withdrawal, and PTSD were also twice as high as compared to those who were not maltreated (Dodge, 2002). They also expressed less anticipation in attending college. In effect, this study was able to reveal that early physical abuse results to psychological and behavioural problems for adolescents – problems which present major concerns for community populations (Dodge, 2002). A paper by Pollak (2004) sought to consider the impact of maltreatment of the psychosocial development of young children. Maltreated children often manifest different patterns of emotional development. They do not perform well on tasks which assess their ability to recognize and express emotions (Pollak, 2004). They display withdrawal, aggression, and are often quick to recognize or attribute hostility to others. Because of the abuse these children have suffered, they recognize cues like anger very well; however, they are unable to recognize other emotions in the process (Pollak, 2004). A series of studies by Davis (as cited by Clarke & Clarke, 1998) present the case of six year old Anna who was extremely neglected; who received no professional help, and who subsequently died at the age of 10. This is in contrast to the case of Isabelle, the child of a deaf-mute parent who was imprisoned in an attic. Isabelle suffered from rickets, severe disabilities, and was not aware of human and social relationships of any kind (Clarke & Clarke, 1998). With proper care, she made good progress in both her cognitive and emotional development. In the Koluchova case, identical twin boys born in 1960 lost their mother after birth and were then cared for by a social agency (one month) and then later by an aunt (Clarke & Clarke, 1998). When their father remarried when they were six months old, they lived with their father and his new wife. This new wife however, was excessively cruel; she locked the twins in a cellar for five and a half years and beat them from time to time (Clarke & Clarke, 1998). When the twins were later discovered at the age of seven – they were short in stature; did not know how to speak; suffered from rickets; and did not understand pictures (Clarke & Clarke, 1998). When they were removed from their parents, they immediately underwent various programs in remediation. With proper care and guidance, they flourished and developed well until they caught up with their contemporaries. Extreme deprivation and neglect basically hold back the child in his normal development growth. Since the deprivation and neglect is extreme, these children hardly know how to talk, walk, eat, and express themselves beyond what they have been used to. This is often the case for feral children or ‘wild’ children. The case of Genie is one of the landmark cases attributed to extreme deprivation. She was imprisoned for about 10 years by an abusive father. Her mother was blind and was controlled by her husband. When she was found, she could not talk or walk; was wearing diapers; did not have social skills; and had partially atrophied muscles (Benzaquen, 2006). Due to extreme deprivation, she could not speak and she did not know the basic standards of socialization. She was also extremely malnourished (Benzaquen, 2006). Eventually with proper care, she was able to learn how to walk and talk. However, her speech development was slow. She did not know how to use pronouns and she never seemed to ask questions. In the speech and communication department, she never seemed to catch up with children her age (Smith, Cowie, & Blades, 1991). Her fate has not been as progressive as in the case of the Koluchova twins. Conclusion The discussion and the cases illustrated above indicate that extreme deprivation and neglect interfere with the normal development of children. It prevents them from fulfilling the demands of each development stage; in effect they become stunted in growth and are exposed to physiologically, socially, and psychologically damaging elements. These elements cause them to manifest behaviour which are not usual for their age and which do not allow for their full potential to manifest. Maltreatment and extreme neglect deprive children of proper care and nourishment resulting to mental, social, and physical maladjustment and failure to thrive. Works Cited Benzaquen, A. (2006) Encounters with wild children: temptation and disappointment in the study of human nature. Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press Clarke, A. & Clarke, A. (1998) Early experience and the life path. The Psychologist September, pp. 433 – 436. Retrieved 13 August 2010 from http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_11-editionID_67-ArticleID_270-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist%5Clifepath.pdf Dyson, J. (1990) The Effects of family violence on children’s academic performance and behavior. Journal of the National Medical Association, volume 82 (117), pp. pp. 17-22 Lansford, J., Dodge, K., Pettit, G., Bates, J., Crozier, J., & Kaplow, J. (2002) A 12-Year Prospective Study of the Long-term Effects of Early Child Physical Maltreatment on Psychological, Behavioral, and Academic Problems in Adolescence. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, volume 156 (8), pp. 824-830. Oliver, K. (2007) Your Child’s Brain: The Crucial Early Years. County Extension Educator, Ohio State University Extension. pp. 1-2. Retrieved 13 August 2010 from http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/pdf/Child_Brain.pdf Pollak, S. (2004) The Impact of Child Maltreatment on the Psychosocial Development of Young Children. Enfant Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 August 2010 from http://www.enfant-encyclopedie.com/Pages/PDF/PollakANGxp.pdf Smith, P., Cowie, H., & Blades, M. (1991) Understanding childrens development. Oxford, UK: Wiley & Sons Zeanah, C. (2009) Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development Handbook of Infant Mental Health, Third Edition. London: Guilford Press Read More