The Effect on Children Neglected or Actively Maltreated - Literature review Example

The effect on children of being either neglected or actively maltreated or both Abuse of children, both physically and mentally, manifest commonly in many parts of the world in the form of either child neglect or child maltreatment. Many incidents have been reported from the various parts of the world that children are either physically or mentally maltreated or neglected. The number of maltreated children is increasing day by day and it gradually leads them to depression, suicide or criminal activities. Many studies conducted overtime have clearly identified that the state of the children are in danger of harm due to abuse or neglect. Another notable thing recognized while going through various studies is that the number of the neglected boys and girls are approximately equal. But yet some other studies argue that the effect of neglect and maltreatment are different in children of different ages. It is common knowledge that the neglected children are generally denied of either proper maternal care or care and attention from other caregivers. This paper seeks to explore the effects of neglect and maltreatment on children with special reference to child development theories, mainly that of the psychoanalytical and attachment theories. Neglect and maltreatments has often been reported as adversely affecting the children in their personal development and studies. It may also cause for some learning defects that lead to failure in their exams. The online article entitled; Consequences of Child Neglect makes it clear when it reports that “School-aged children with histories of neglect have serious learning deficits. They score significantly lower on measures of school performance than physically abused or non-maltreated children, particularly in the areas of reading and math” (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2010). Thus, one can identify that the neglect in the home environment often denies them the intellectual stimulation which is essential for the recreation of a new generation with significant language discrepancies. The same article also reminds the words of the teachers regarding child neglect and maltreatment. The teachers are of the opinion that “neglected children work at below average levels and learn at below average levels” (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2010). Teachers have also noted the higher rate of the behavioural problems among the maltreated/neglected children while comparing them to the non-maltreated children of school. This is also applicable regarding the percentage of their attendance in schools. Neglected children are very often reluctant in attending school and their rate of absence in schools is higher than that of the non-neglected children. Another significant thing evolved out of the study of the maltreated children is that the effect of maltreatment and neglect vary in children of various ages. Some of the studies conducted in due course have identified such differences and one of the studies reveals, “…the maltreated 6-9-year-old children but not 4-5-year-olds were rated by their mothers as having significantly more behavioural problems, especially symptoms of depression and social withdrawal than non-maltreated children from lower income families” (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2010). Olive Stevenson (2007, p.84) in his book, Neglected children and their families, attempts a grave evaluation over the state of the children in the neglected families. The author is of the opinion that children in these families lack the genuine qualities which the children in the non-neglected families possess. The author makes it clear when he rightly remarks thus. According to him, “…we see children in neglectful families who seem to have few of the early benign experiences which lay the basis of resilience; when we see them copying well, we may have to fall back on the vaguer (although very important) indications of genetic endowment which strengthens them.” It can thus be inferred that neglect of the children will cause for severe changes in their behaviour which may persist all through their lives. Patton, Viner and Lancet (2007 p.1130) in their article entitled, Pubertal transitions in health hits upon puberty as an epoch which elicits various changes to human beings. According to them, “Puberty is accompanied by physical, psychological, and emotional changes adapted to ensure reproductive and parenting success. Human puberty stands out in the animal world for its association with brain maturation and physical growth. Its effects on health and wellbeing are profound and paradoxical.” As puberty is the time that ensues the functioning of brain, it is mandatory that the children should get proper care from the elders; otherwise there is possibility for them to deviate either to misbehaviour or to mental depression. Similarly, Patton & Viner (2007) unearth the relation between puberty and health and the authors argue that puberty is a period where biology drives the psychological and social development of children. For them, psychosocial disorders of young people is associated with health issues related to puberty and “it marks a transition in risks for depression and other mental disorders, psychosomatic syndromes, substance misuse, and antisocial behaviours” (Patton & Viner, 2007, p. 1130). The authors argue that early puberty among girl children may lead to emotional and behavioural problems and early sexual activity which is likely to affect the adult life of the person. Toth and Cicchetti (2004) deal elaborately with child maltreatment and its impact on psychosocial child development. The researchers argue that maltreatment not only results in “bruises, burns, head trauma, abandonment and malnutrition”; on the other hand, “the emotional damage accompanying abusive and neglectful acts, and not solely the physical damage, may result in the most significant and long-term harmful effects on the child” (p. 1). The authors also identify that the maltreatment that occurs during the first five years of the child is more detrimental to the physical and psychosocial development of the child. The available statistics on child maltreatment is quite shocking and alarming. The National Incidence Study of 1993 in the United States showed that there were almost 1.6 million American children who were either abused or neglected and that “11.1 out of every 1,000 children experienced abuse and 13.1 experienced neglect” (Toth & Cicchetti, 2004, p. 1). Just as child maltreatment poses a lot of issues, it has become a great challenge for nations to formulate policies and introduce radical interventions or measures to prevent child maltreatment. Studies have also shown that maltreated and neglected children are more likely to display criminal tendencies, develop substance abuse problems and experience difficulty in their studies. A longitudinal investigation conducted by Widom and Maxfield showed that “abused and neglected children were 1.8 times more likely to be arrested as juveniles than were their non-maltreated age mates. Maltreated children also are more likely to develop substance abuse problems. In addition, more than 50% of maltreated children experience difficulties in school and approximately 25% require special education services” (Toth & Cicchetti, 2004, p.3). Similarly, the findings of the study conducted by Starr & Wolfe (1991) also pointed out that physically abused children are more likely to indulge in violent and criminal offences and activities (Starr & Wolfe, 1991, p.12). Starr & Wolfe (1991), commenting on the effects of maltreatment on children, state that “severe maltreatment increases the probability of being removed from the home, possibly leading to exposure to multiple caretakers, and if return to home occurs, it is likely to be to a continuing destabilized situation” (Starr & Wolfe, 1991, p.3). The authors purport that emotional maltreatment has a greater effect on children than physical maltreatment. Children who are neglected and maltreated fail to meet their emotional needs which prevent them from developing their personality and the psychological effect of child neglect haunts them all throughout their lives. To quote the authors’ own words, “psychological maltreatment includes rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, ignoring, and corrupting-acts that are part of all other forms of abuse and neglect. Most of the consequences of maltreatment are due more to the psychological component of the maltreatment than to such other aspects as injury or physical deprivation” (Starr & Wolfe, 1991, p. 14). Psychoanalytical theories: Child Neglect and Maltreatment It is essential to have a thorough understanding of the various psycho-analytical theories when one deals with the issues of child neglect and maltreatment. Child Developmental psychology seeks to address various aspects of human development, including physical cognitive, social, moral, and personality development. A considerable part of the life span development of an individual occurs during his/ her infancy and childhood (0-12 years) period. An individual develops physically, paves the basic traits for his cognitive development and internalizes the various social, moral and personality traits during his childhood. Psychologists differ in their views regarding the effects of neglect and maltreatment on children during the developmental stages of their personality. The term psycho analytic theory is originated with study of the great psychologist Sigmund Freud. According to him the oppressed or suppressed feelings and desires at the various stages of childhood influence the behaviour of a person to a great extent. These stages, in his opinion, are a series of psycho sexual periods in which all the conflicts that occur have a lifelong effect. Freud believed that the personality of every individual is framed by the age of five and as a result most of the mental and psychological problems, according to him, have their roots in the early childhood of the person. This implies that if a child is denied proper care during his psycho sexual periods, it may hamper him from attaining a bright future. Freud organized his personality theory around psycho-sexual stages of development. Body pleasure or erogenous zones shift from one part of the body to the other as the child advances in age such as mouth, anus and genitals. There are four distinctive stages of psycho- sexual development: oral, anal, phallic, and genital through which the child moves. According to Freud, the person’s experiences at each stage leave some characteristic impressions and imprints that influence his future personality development. The specific sex experiences at any of the stage either in the form of over-indulgence or deprivation may produce fixation, which means an arrest of sexual impulses at any early stage of psychosexual development (Sarnoff, 1962). For Freud, it is the libido or sexual urge that dictates terms over one’s behavior and he held that at each stage of the developmental process “a single body part is particularly sensitive to sexual, erotic stimulation” (Stevenson, 1996) and unless these physical needs at each stage of development are fulfilled the child subjects himself to frustration and fixation and this can adversely affect the development of adult personality too. The five psychosexual developmental stages framed by Freud are the oral stage (birth to 18 months), the anal stage (18 months to three years), the phallic stage (3 years to 6 years), latency period (6 years to onset of puberty), and the genital stage (from puberty on). As the childhood period spreads over the phallic stage and the latency period, it is necessary to understand the psycho social developments that the child undergoes during these two periods. According to Freud, in the phallic stage the child’s “erogenous zone is the genital region” and the child develops “the greatest, most crucial sexual conflict’ in his life” (Stevenson, 1996). Freud argues that at this stage children tend to display an unconscious sexual urge towards the opposite sex parent and a disliking hatred towards the same sex parent which he terms as the Oedipus complex (Electra complex for women). A boy thus identifies himself with his father and wants to become like his father; Freud warns that fixation at this stage can make the child reckless, over cautious, resolute, narcissistic and even can lead to homosexuality. Freud describes the latency period as “a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses” and during the period most children “pour this repressed libidal energy into asexual pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships” (Stevenson, 1996). It is during this stage that the child develops his ego and resorts to defense mechanisms to fulfill his unsatisfied needs. Later with the genital stage the energy of the child again focuses on his genitals and he starts to develop heterosexual relations. Freud’s psycho analytical theories have greater implication in the case of neglected and maltreated children. Such children are more likely to cherish more of unsatisfied needs and suppressed feelings which will cause some sort of fixation and personality disorders during their childhood itself. A combined study of Freud and his colleague, Hans Breuer could find out a common denominator in the case of two paralyzed and ill young women. They could identify that these two women had suffered severe and repeated trauma during their puberty. The trauma was the after effect of sexual molestation and mostly by a member of the family. The stress of the situation forces them to suppress their feelings which later cause for expressing traumatic events into their unconscious minds and gradually making them physically ill. This study throws light to the necessity of childcare and the great need of protection at the time of their growth. It also unveils that the incidents occurring in childhood will have counterparts all through one’s life (Schwartz, 2006). Thus it is crystal clear that the neglect in the childhood may result for sexual abuse of children which may haunt the child all through his lives. Freud’s theories commenced a new era on the study of psychology gaining him a number of followers. Among them Erikson was the outstanding figure who added to Freud’s fame by introducing an ‘eight stage theory’ of psychosocial development. In this study he mainly describes the influence of social interactions and conflicts in a person’s life during these eight stages of development (Cherry, 2010). Erikson elaborated the theory of Freud in to an eight stages of lifelong growth and change influenced by the social interactions and conflicts, whereas Freud believed that personality is formed by the age of five. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that the social environment of a person is an important factor in shaping the personality of an individual and held that one’s personality is not fixed but changing during the course of one’s life. Erikson envisions eight phases in the developmental process of the individual and states that each stage is characterized by a psychological crisis or dilemma which needs to be overcome before proceeding to the next stage or phase. In the first two stages children seek for trust and develop some sort of control over their bodies and bowel movements. The third stage (initiative versus guilt) and the fourth stage (industry versus inferiority) come under the childhood period and need to be discussed. During the initiative versus guilt period (4-5 years), children begin to take initiatives and like to be independent to some extend; they “plan and carry out activities” and too much control over children at this stage can “result in a fearful, dependent child, whereas too little control may result in a child without any guilt or conscience” (Tassoni, 2007, p. 41). The industry versus inferiority period (6-12 years) is very much significant in the developmental phase of the child. It is during this stage that children start “comparing themselves to other children” and children who experience continuous failure at this stage are most likely to lose their confidence and become inferior (Tassoni , 2007, p. 42). On the other hand, there is also the danger of the child turning to be over confidant and proud with undue success at this stage and therefore it is important to ensure a balanced development at this stage so that even successful children develop empathetic and humanitarian feelings towards. Children seek for recognition and appreciation at this stage and as a result meeting the expectation of the parents, teachers and the peer group becomes significant for the growth of the child at this stage. While bringing Erikson’s theory in the present context of children being neglected and maltreated, it is evident that the abuse of children will definitely affect their balanced developmental process. One should also bear in mind the fact that the neglected children are unable to overcome the psychological crisis or dilemma as they are moved by various conflicts and fail to receive timely social or parental recognition and care. Carl Gustav Jung postulated his famous personality theory which is based on the power of unconscious mind, its dreams and fantasies. In his study he speaks about two types of unconscious; one is Personal Unconscious and the other is Collective Unconscious. According to him dreams have their own purpose and intention. Many psychologists even today apply his treatment methodology and the theory of categorizing people, according to their introversive or extroversive nature (Term paper on Theories and Treatment, n. d.). The power of unconscious mind may recollect the memories and thoughts of a person which he experienced; whether it is neglect or maltreatment, during his childhood. As per the psychoanalytical theory each and every human being is born with a sense of inferiority complex. Throughout one’s life he/she tries hard to overcome this negative status. According to Adler, the psychologist, this struggle for striving for superiority is the lashing force behind all human thought, emotions, and behaviours. Though inferiority complex can fabricate positive effects, it is not so all the time; on the other hand, the same inferiority complex can create negative impacts on an entity especially on neglected children. As they are deserted by others they lack the opportunity for motivation and subsequently they find themselves incapable of striving for the superiority which would lead them to their preferred goals. Besides it dwindles their trustworthiness in themselves, makes them consider as less important and helpless and finally all these feelings crush their life aspiration and makes them good for nothing. As a neglected child is enforced to face his life struggles all alone he/she may have mistrust for others and will find intricacy in building up cherished relationships as well (Personality synopsis, 2003). To conclude the theory, one can see that children undergoing inferiority complex as an after effect of maltreatment or neglect will be incapable of overcoming this difficulty and attaining superiority complex. In the same way, Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs bring to light many of the problems that neglected and maltreated children are subjected to. Through his theories, Maslow makes it clear that each human being is motivated by his/her needs. Maslow classifies his hierarchy of needs into five categories- from biological and physical needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, to self-actualization and he purports that unless and until an individual has fulfilled his/her basic biological and physical needs he/she can never try to satisfy his/her higher level of needs (Chapman, 2010). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs have a greater implication in the case of neglected and maltreated children. These children very often are unable to meet even their very basic biological and physical needs and the barriers that prevent them from acquiring self-actualization are many and varied. Implications of Attachment theory in Child Neglect/maltreatment Studies have shown that it is the lack of attachment to children which leads them to many psychological or mental disorders. The Attachment Theory propounded by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby (1969/1982) explores the effect of neglect and maltreatment on children. Bowlby has already recognized the real impact of attachment between a mother and her child which can impede many emotional as well as interpersonal issues by improving his/her social behaviour. David Howe (1999, p.3) acknowledges this fact when he supports Bowlby’s attachment theory. According to Howe, “Attachment theory has proved to be a major player in helping researchers to understand how the quality of early and continuing close relationships affects children’s emotional development, interpersonal; style and social behaviour” Bowlby’s theory envisages that the infant-mother attachment and infant-mother interaction have an elite role in moulding the character of the child. He is of the view that this attachment will enable the child for his early social development. P. Forrest Talley (2005, p.4) quotes the words of Bowlby when Bowlby defines attachment thus; “attachment refers to the way in which the young of a species maintain proximity to the parents.” Bowlby further commented that the evolutionary effect of this proximity will provide the children a survival advantage, especially to embolden themselves to surpass the trials and tribulations of the vulnerable offspring. The child is often seeking the support of the parents during the periods of increased stress or threat. This clearly unveils the biological function of the attachment. The previous mentioned minutiae permits one to infer that attachment can serve as a motivating factor that regulate the number of children engaging in malpractices. Conclusion To conclude, one can infer that the effects of neglect or maltreatment on children are numerous. The study has divulged various effects that include the commonly found effects like depression and learning disabilities. But a deeper study reveals the psychological outcome of maltreatment and neglect torment children all throughout their lives. When it persists in a person, it may bring to him the danger of harm and emptiness in intellectual stimulation. This lack of intellectual simulation makes him, either average or below average in learning and work. If he is a school boy, he may have a lower attendance rate and head trauma. Maltreatment also causes for abandonment and malnutrition which contributes one a weak body stature. Emotional damage turns them to display criminal tendencies and substance abuse. Neglect may show the probability of children being removed from home. Therefore, it is imperative that competent policies and radical measures are framed to fight child neglect imbibing the theoretical understanding of the above mentioned psychological and attachment theories. References Cherry Kendra 2010, Psychoanalytic Theories of Development, Viewed 6 June 2010 from About.com Guide. Child Welfare Information Gateway 2010, Consequences of Child Neglect, Part 2, viewed 6 June 2010 from eNotAlone.com< http://www.enotalone.com/article/9893.html>Chapman Alan 2010, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Viewed June 6, 2010, from Abraham Maslow original Hierarchy of Needs concept 1954 Howe, David. 1999. Attachment theory, child maltreatment, and family support: a practice and assessment model. Illustrated Edition: Routledge. Personality Synopsis 2003, , Chapter 5: Psychodynamic and Neo-Freudian Theories, viewed June 6, 2010 from Allpsych.com Patton, G. C. & Viner, R 2007, ‘Pubertal transitions in health’, Lancet, vol. 369, no. 9567, pp. 130-1139. Patton C George, Viner Russel & Lancet 2007, “Pubertal transitions in health”, Adoloscent Health 1 pp. 1130-39 Starr, R & Wolfe, D.A 1991, The Effects of child abuse and neglect: issues and research, Guilford Press, 1991. Sarnoff, Irving. 1962. Personality Dynamics and Development. John Wiley & Sons: New York. Schwartz Allan 2006. Mental Health and the Legacy of Sigmund Freud, viewed June 6, 2009, from MentalHelp.net < http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=9409> Stevenson, D.B. 1996. Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development. Viewed June 6, 2009, from the Victorian Web: http://www.victorianweb.org/science/freud/develop.html Stevenson, Olive. 2007, Neglected children and their families, Illustrated Edition 2: Wiley-Blackwell. Talley, Forrest P. 2005, Handbook for the treatment of abused and neglected children, Illustrated Edition: Routledge Tassoni, Penny. 2007. Child Development: 6 to 16 Years. Illustrated Edition: Heinemann. Term paper on Theories and Treatment n. d, Carl Gustav Jung (1875 – 1961, viewed June 6, 2010 from Term paper on Theories and Treatment Toth SL, Cicchetti D 2004, Child maltreatment and its impact on psychosocial child development. In: Tremblay RE, Barr RG, Peters RDeV, eds. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development, Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development, Viewed 5 June 2010, . Read More