The Development of Professional Learning Communities - Essay Example

How might the development of professional learning communities enhance teaching and learning in Design and Technology in the primary school? Introduction There have been many attempts to identify the features of a profession. Bottery (1996) suggested that at least seventeen different criteria have been claimed at one time or another to describe professional behaviour. Salient characteristics included subscription to a specialised body of knowledge exclusive to the occupation, which required learning in higher education. Hodson and Sullivan (2008) differentiates professionals from amateurs as possessing: “(1) abstract, specialized knowledge, (2) autonomy, (3) authority over clients and subordinate occupational groups, and (4) a certain degree of altruism” (p.258). All these characteristics ensure that a professional demonstrates expertise and dominance over his or her trade. Thus, professionalisation became a common trend among different occupations, and one that has received great attention from sociologists (Wueste, 1997). Whilst professionalisation is generally accepted as an important direction among occupations, it has received various criticism coming from different angles. Andrew Abbott’s main critic about the notion of professionalism are particular claims of theorists that “the evolution of professions are unidirectional; that the development of individual professions does not depend on that of others; that what professions do—the work as well as the requisit expertise—is less important than how they are orgnised to do it; that professions are homogeneous units; and that the process of professionalisation does not change over time” (Wueste, 1997, p. 8). Related to the last element identified by Abbot, another major critcism relies on the manner that professionalism is instituted. A number of occupations have developed higher levels of training and standards of practice to enhance their claims to professional status. However, Wilensky (1964) said that many of these groups rested on a knowledge base which was either too general and vague, or too narrow. Their knowledge base was weak and not directly used by them. Professionalism is further complicated by copmeting modes of institutionalising expertise, such as commodification and beurocratic organization (Wuestes, 1997). Thus, a more preferred term was used by Etzioni (1969) to classify these occupations: semi-professionals. The field of education has been historically in constant threat of de-professionalisation (Bottery & Wright, 2000), and teachers may be seen as being prime examples of what Etzioni (1969) call as semi-professionals. Much of the issues are traced to how the educational system was institutionalised in a particular country, and the policies that the government attach to education. Thre has been a growing debate that reforms are only exacerbating education problems in existence for a singificant period of time. According to Bottery and Wright (2000), “the teaching profession spends too little time thinking about issues that ask fundamental questions about the purposes of an education system—and therefore of a teaching profession—within a particular kind of society” (p.50). Amidst the reforms and consequent added responsibilities, how can educators improve their knowledge base and assert their professionalism in particular fields? Perhaps in realisation of the fact that teachers did not really match the model of the established or more traditional professions, there have been attempts to redefine the term professional or to present different kinds of professionalism. Much of this discussion has focused on the actual practice of teaching. The modern professional, according to Schon (1982), constantly questioned and reflected upon practice. This involved the professional regarding his or her work from the point of view of the client or as an outsider. The purpose of this was to understand all aspects of the process resulting in greater professional insight. This whole procedure, involving evaluation, criticism and ultimately self-development, required openness and trust between those involved. Hoyle (1980) differentiated between two sorts of teachers. Restricted professionals are conscientious practitioners but are limited in outlook. Extended professionals seek to improve their practice by learning from other teachers and professional development activities. They are keen to be involved in practitioner research and to link theory to practice. The situation of teachers in Cyprus is one that can potentially benefit from professional learning communities created through the concept of extded professionalism. In Cyprus, primary teachers are expected to teach all the subjects of the curriculum. Their university preparation is general, with no specialisations in specific subjects, not even in specific age-range. Many of them choose to follow masters degrees in order to gain some knowledge in a specific subject. Often, these teachers are more qualified and knowledgeable about a subject than the subject inspectors. In design and technology, this lack of knowledge base is even more evident, considering that it is a comparatively new subject. There are currently no inspectors responsible for the subject, and most of the teachers were not taught design and technology in school and in university. This paper is designed against this current backdrop of the situation of the teachers in Cyprus. It aims to answer the following questions: How is a professional learning communigy for teachers defined, and what are the challenges in instituting professional learning communities? What are the benefits of professional learning communities? How will professional learning communities enhance teaching and learning in Design and Technology among Cyprus primary schools? The following questions serve as the main headings in the subsequent sections. The essay will consider the above questions drawing from current literature on professional learning communities. How might professional learning communities be defined? This section of the paper aims to have a comprehensive definition of a professional learning community among teachers. It will identify the functions of the community, the people involved, the relationships that are nurtured, and the main interests of the members. It will examine the roles of knowledge creation (as the main aim of the community), and collaborative learning (as the means of promoting the aim). Towards the end of the section, some important obstacles for creating professional learning communities will be considered. Defining Professional Learning Communities Wenger (2007) have placed learning in social relationships as an aspect of situations of co-participation. Learning involves participation in a community of practice. “Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly” (Wenger, 2007). They have an identity defined by a shared domain of interest, which is characterised by a competency that all members have. Members participate in joint activities and discussions to share information and help each other. Relationships are built in an aim to learn from each other though they do not neccessarily work in the same environment. Perhaps the most important characteristic of a community of practice is the practice. Because they are practitioners, the members “develop a shared repertoire of resources: experiences, stories, ways of addressing recurring problems-in short a shared practice” (Wenger, 2007). Senge’s (1994) definition of professional learning communities states that is “a place where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly aspire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together” (as cited in Bottery, 2003, p.189). These characteristics imply that to achieve the ambience of shared practice takes time and effort. Nonetheless, the goals and the benefit make it an exceptionally worthwhile endeavour. Thus, a community of practice or (otherwise known as) professional learning communities became a popular endeavour in various occupational fields, especially among educators. Teacher professional learning communities, also referred to as faculty learning communities is described as a group of educators who “continuously seek and share learning, and act on their learning” (Hord, 1997 as cited in Bulluogh & Baugh, p.286). Stoll expands this definition by stating the following qualities: “shared values and vision; collective responsibility; reflective professional inquiry; collaboration; promotion of group, as well as individual, learning; mutual trust; respect and support among staff members; and inclusive membership (Bulluogh & Baugh, 2008, p.286). Bottery (2003) would go further in pointing out that the definition of teaching learning communities is dependent on certain social, educational, and political considerations. In taking this stance, Bottery (2003) highlights the function of professional learning communities in schools, whilst discussing the economic and global implications of professional learning communities. He outlines the following additional qualities that separate teaching learning communities from other professional learning communities: “(1) that they are not exclusive for reasons of finance, race, or religion; (2) that they act as a bulwark for thinking linked neither to the state nor the market; (3) that they are not only reflective and reflexive about learning but about the cultural and political conditions surrounding that learning; (4) that such reflexivity of learning leads to a criticality of existing frames of reference, of organisational structures, and of economic and political contexts” (Bottery, 2003, pp.189-190). Teacher learning community is gaining an important seat in the realm of professional development among teachers. By definition, communities are not limited by school affiliation or geographical location, although there are groups efficiently created out of proximity. Teacher learning communities offer the opportunity to recapture a Deweyan approach to teacher professionalism; one that involves systematic observations and analyses of classrooms and student work, and ongoing collegial dialogue. Knowledge Creation and Collaborative Learning The importance of knowledge creation if professionalising the teaching occupation was highlighted by Winch (2004). There appears to be no clear distinction whether teaching is an occupation or vocation, which is useful to determine its professional claims. Teaching particularly lacks the theoretical body of knowledge that characterises medicine and low, but Winch (2004) remarks that this may not need to be so permanently. Educators must move towards knowledge acquisition in their respective practices. “The acquisition of such knowledge would be a major contribution to the recognition of teaching as an occupation with similar attributes to the traditional professions, with consequent benefits both for the quality of the teaching force and for its societal status” (Winch, 2004, p.187). An erea for the creation of stronger knowledge base in teaching is through teacher learning communities. Increasingly, literature abounds recommending collegial communities of teachers who learn together for the sake of improving student learning (Wood, 2007). Cochran-Smith and Lyle (1999) distinguish three types of learning that teachers indulge in: knowledge-for-practice, knowledge-in-practice, and knowledge-of-pracitce. The first, knowledge-for-practice refers to theory or formal knowledge generated by university researchers to help teachers improve in their practice. Knowledge-in-practice recongnises the fact that teachers gain insight from practical applications of theories they learnt in university, readings and research. “It is assumed that teachers learn when they have opportunities to probe the knowledge embedded in the work of expert teachers and/or to deepen their own knowledge and expertise as makers of wise judgments and designers of rich learning interactions in the classroom” (Cochran-Smith & Lyle, 1999, p.3). Knowledge-of-practice, on the other hand, becomes the process by which teachers make their classrooms a site for investigation, and the same time treat the knowledge generated by theorists and researchers as material for interrogation and interpretation (Cochran-Smith & Lyle, 1999). Through this process, teachers learn by generating knowledge of their practice and contextualizing it to their political, social and cultural situations. According to Cohran-Smith and Lytle (1999), knowledge making is understood as a pedagogic act - constructed in the context of use, intimately connected to the iknower, and, although relevant to immediate situations, also inevitably a process of theorising. Teachers across the professional life span play a central and critical role in generating knowledge of practice by making their classrooms and schools sites for inquiry, connecting their work in schools to larger issues, and taking a critical perspective on the theory and research of others. This is relevant to the Mode 2 knowledge creation, in which knowledge production is applied, problem-focused, trans-disciplinary, hybrid, demand-driven, entrepreneurial and embedded in networks. “All practice is learned in some way and a range of research acknowledges the fact that teacher learning is both individual and collective” (James & Jule, 2005 as cited in Kaey, 2006, p.4). Hodkinson and Hodkinson (2005) confirmed this in their study aimed to improve the quality of working environment of teachers. According to their study, teachers report that they learn from their daily practice in class, specifically, through the spontaneous modifications they create in the classroom in reaction to interactions with the students. External factors, such as new curricula, assessment methods and novel teaching materials, were also identified as agents for learning. Through professional development trainings, teachers are able to pick up ideas for pedagogy. Furthermore, teachers are also involved in continuous learning through reading books or researching on the Internet. Based on the responses of the research conducted by Hodkinson and Hodkinson (2005), a significant amount of learning occurs through collaboration. “Collaborative learning includes conversation and discussion, observing and taking an interest in what others do, and joint activity” (Hodkinson & Hodkinson, 2005, p.9). Teachers claim that they value learning with teachers from other schools, as well. Collaboration si the means by which teachers learn in a community. It is a process which requires engagement in a series of collaborative activities with colleagues (Keay, 2006). Whilst collaborative learning by its very nature requires interaction with colleagues, it is not only about sharing a learning experiences, but involves learning together and valuing each other’s input to the process and requires motivation from all involved (Lloyd and Beard, 1995; Tillema and van der Hausen, 2006). Keay (2006) identifies common features within the literature through which to explore collaborative learning experiences: “(1) relationships between participants are supportive and not supervisory and members hold each other in mutual respect; (2) Individuals are motivated and committed to learning and collaboration; (3) Activity takes place in a culture in which professional dialogue is possible and where participants seek feedback and constructive criticism; and (4) Participants engage in reflective practice” (p. 7) According to the list above, expert and novice teachers should learn to support and respect each other. They should do so in a continuous basis, exchanging ideas and be ready to make and accept suggestions from other people. The study of Keay (2006) revealed that certain conditions are necessary for successful collaborative learning. A safe environment must be created where every member is afforded with the same level of respect, and mutual trust is established. There must also be the recognition that although it is a shared experience, members join with different expectations, and will thus, have different realizations and insights which they bring with them to their respective practices. In addition, Kaey (2006) noted that another pre-requisite of collaborative lerning is the commitment to professional development. Teacher reported that a common scenario was leaving novice teachers once they have learned to work independently, and losing altogether the interest for the learning communities created early in the school year. Promiting more venues for collaborative learning is a good way to remind teachers that learning does not stop if they want to continuously improve and be able to address the various issues that face them in school. School leaders and teachers must proactively seek ways to enhance themselves through expansion of networks inside and outside of the school. Challenges in Creating Professional Learning Communities Professional learning communities is a contested concept. Bottery (2003) considers the concept problematic, as it can appeal to different groups for different reasons. One of Bottery’s major criticism to the existing definitions of professional learning communities is the absence of defining its functions based on the context of the professionals, i.e. the educators. For policy makers and politicians the concept would serve to meet the demands of a knowledge economy and the need for intellectual capital. For example, Hargreaves (1998) parallels knowledge-intensive companies with schools and points out the vitality of effective use of intellectual capital in those companies. Hargreaves (1998) has a vision of future teachers to be protagonists in the creation, application and dissemination of professional knowledge. As members of a learning community in a continually changing society, teachers must begin to model people who are team-playing, networking and community-supporting, with an ability to be continually creative. Are professional learning communities beneficial for the education system and the children or are they a means of promoting economic productivity and growth, or can both be achieved at the same time? The need for fulfilling the demands of the society presents an opportunistic view of teacher learning and knowledge itself. It applies directly to a system which is concerned more with results. For educationalists, the concept of learning communities would be used to move educational policies away from results and accountability orientation, towards one more concerned with the processes of learning, and even with the notion of learning as being a good in itself (Bottery, 2003). To reconcile these issues, there is a need for educators to create a more comprehensive definition of teacher learning communities. A generic definition may suffice as a guide, however, it is essential as well for specific learning communities to identify their context and formulate objectives that will answer pertinent issues based on the political, educational and social situations that they are facing. Another major challenge for teacher learning communities is associated by the process that it is achived, collaborative learning. Ensuring an environment where teachers feel safe and encouraged to share their ideas, no matter how radical, can be challening. This might be difficult in a culture of hierarchy, when teachers are used to follow supervisors orders and obey to principles and inspectors. Alternatively, if leaders respond to this challenge properly, research has shown the dramatic improvements in the teachers’ attitude and work output. This of course is directly translated to increase in student achievement. A collaborative environment is devoid of competition, which is the observable in most schools in Cyprus. A culture supporting targets, low trust, and performance related pay may create "competitive Individualistic Professionals", teachers who are interested in their personal accreditation and advancement rather than in the good of their local or national community. In a competitive culture, co-operation and community practice are not possible (Bottery, 2003). If teachers are role models for their pupils, a competitive individualistic professional teacher cannot promote moral values and cooperation between children. Education simply becomes a prepartion for children to enter the competitive adult arena through tests and results. Teacher learning communities are communities of practice in which teachers collaborate between them to create new knowledge for the good of their children. Knowledge is not created by others and given to the teachers to use it. They create the knowledge themselves through their practice. They do so in a planned and systematic way in a culture of respect and cooperation. Communities that do not promote collaboration are impossible to grow and learn. Teacher learning communities have no room for competition. Their aim is not the profit of any kind or the good of anyone else but the children. I have a vision for primary design and technology teachers in Cyprus to become a real learning community—learning from each other for the good of the students. This might entail difficulties for some schools, where there are only a few teachers who teach the subject. This does not mean however, that it is impossible. The responsibility of teachers in learning communities is to promote students learning and life chances (Lytle and Cochran-Smith, 1994). Is it intellectually possible to consider learning as pure (a good in itself) and at the same time as a means for providing better life chances for children, when life chances are directly connected to helping them earn more money when they are grown-ups? This dichotomy is evident in design and technology. Does the subject aim to help children learn how to solve problems (learning as being a good in itself), or to help them become creators of new things (learning for profit), or perhaps both? To end up this section with a positive attitude I refer to a number of writers (Bottery, 1998; Elliot, 2001; Whitty, 2001) who have suggested that the teaching profession needs to adopt the notion of the "democratic professional". According to Whitty (2001) it should “seek to demystify professional work and build alliances between teachers and excluded constituencies of students, parents and members of the community, on whose behalf decisions have traditionally been made either by professionals or by the state” (p. 170). Why might professional learning communities be beneficial for primary practitioners? The main aim of teaching is learning. There is no successful teaching without learning. Research evidence from successful practice of teaching suggests that there are six shared characteristics found in professional learning communities. These characteristics appear to cross all school types and to cross international boundaries. Primary practitioners might become successful in teaching if they become members of a learning community, which is characterised by shared values and vision; collaborative learning built around enquiry - and the application of learning; collaboration and shared personal practice; supportive and shared leadership; collective responsibility for student learning and success; and supportive conditions (Jackson and Tasker, 2007). “When a learning community has been developed through an effective PDS [Professional Development School] relationship, educational change can be effectively undertaken” (Doolittle, Sudeck & Rattigan, 2008, p.305). Moreover, Doolittle, Sudeck & Rattigan (2008) in studying teaching learning communities over time, have realised the important role of these communities in sustaining commitment of teachers. It also paved the way for innovations and meaning professional involvement which yielded highly productive output. Collaborative learning is both a powerful and effective form of professional development (Cordingley et al., 2003). Participation in learning communities is a great opportunity for primary teachers to enhance their learning through collaboration, end their professional isolation and become more self-confident. Primary design and technology subject in Cyprus is a comparatively new subject with limited resources. It will reap high benefits from the support of other teachers through learning communities. It is also significant for the introduction of new subjects that experts are identified, and that learning communities find opportunities to further develop teachers’ expertise. In most cases, collaborative learning might be the only way for newly-qualified teachers to survive. Initially, they join communities and learn at the periphery. The things they are involved in and the tasks they do may be of lesser impact to the community than those of others. As they become more competent, they become more involved in the main processes of the particular community. They move from legitimate peripheral participation to into full participation (Lave and Wenger, 1991, p.37). In reality, more experienced teachers might prefer to avoid supporting conditions in a competitive professional culture. This would mean that more experienced teachers would lose the opportunity for their development, as learning in a learning community is not limited to novices. This is not the case for primary design and technology in Cyprus, as the subject is not assessed in anyway, there are no inspectors or scrutiny, and it is taught in a very child-friendly way. In learning communities, leadership is democratic and teachers have more power and freedom to innovate and take risks. Collective responsibility for student learning makes success easier, and support between the teachers fosters trust relationships. However, in a culture of low-trust, participation in a learning community might create suspicion and hostility between the members. Again, this is not the case for primary design and technology in Cyprus. Teachers choose the subject out of passion—voluntarily and with no ambition for promotions—and many times, they even struggle to support its importance. Teacher learning is an embedded feature of teachers’ classroom practice, which is extended through consulting different sources of knowledge; expanded through collaborative activity; and deepened through talking about and valuing learning (Peder et al., 2005). Primary teachers might benefit from being members of professional learning communities as they will have the opportunity to exchange ideas, talk about their learning and learn together with their colleagues. A significant proportion of teacher learning occurs through collaborative interactions with others. In English secondary schools the subject department is a significant location for such collaboration (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2005). Helsby (1996) states that local contexts, and in particular departmental cultures, are influential in shaping teachers sense of professionalism. She contents that mutual support is important because it engenders self-confidence. Design and technology in primary school might be considered as a subject department, with specialised knowledge and practice. However, the number of teachers involved is limited comparing to secondary education. Design and technology teachers in primary school might find it harder to end their professional isolation than their colleagues in secondary education. How might professional learning communities enhance teaching and learning in design and technology in Cyprus? In Cyprus, I and other five primary teachers with design and technology specialisation are appointed by the Ministry of Education and Culture as design and technology advisors. Our responsibility is the planning of design and technology workshops for primary teachers, the preparation of teaching material, and visiting primary schools to provide guidance and help. Design and technology workshops is a prime example of introducing collaborative learning in our community. It provides the opportunity to the teachers involved to improve their practice by learning from other teachers. Often, design and technology advisors learn from novice teachers. The main aim of the advisors’ team is to bring primary design and technology teachers together to facilitate learning and end their professional isolation. This resonates to the goals of professional learning communities. However, from my experience, the workshops fail to engage teachers in collaborative learning. Expert teachers do not respect novices and in many instances, they feel that they do not need help and support. The workshops alone are not enough to bring teachers together, and even when they do, they are limited to collaborative activities but not learning. Teaching and learning within design and technology are unique within the school curriculum. The educational process deals with an activity that, by the nature of design problems, may be ill-defined and may lead to a range of varied, and perhaps equally justifiable, ‘finished’ outcomes (Morley, 2002). As Kimbell et al. (1996) have shown, the degree of learning situations remains one of the most difficult curriculum management challenges for design and technology teachers, and it involves risks for teachers and learners alike. In professional learning communities innovation and risk taking are encouraged; hence, teaching and learning in design and technology will help teachers and learners become more creative without the fear of failure. In Cyprus primary design and technology, there are no inspectors or scrutiny. Their absence also encourages risk taking without the fear of failure. In design and technology, pupils draw on knowledge and skills from a range of subject areas, but always involving science and mathematics. They also learn about the variety of modern materials and technologies in use in the industrial and commercial world (DES, 1988, p.86). This means that Design and Technology is a cross-curricular subject which also crosses school boundaries to involve elements of knowledge in the local community. Primary teachers of design and technology can support each other in a learning community bringing together their collective knowledge about various subjects of the curriculum to be used in design and technology. Primary teachers often make the most effective use of their own existing skills in design and technology, rather than invest time and energy in learning new ones. However, Office for Standards in Education and Training (Ofsted) reports (1998-9) suggests that lessons are less satisfactory because of primary teachers’ weaker subject knowledge and experience (Sayers, 2002). The lack of emphasis placed on designing in terms of moving children’s design skills forward has been highlighted by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate. The problem is often ascribed to deficiencies in teachers or their teacher training. Participation in a learning community will involve their move from legitimate peripheral participation to into full participation (Lave and Wenger, 1991, p.37). The problem increasingly has been recognised as generic to the subject, and a lack of basic research on pedagogy in ‘design methods’ is a contributory factor. Participation in a learning community will help create the pedagogy needed by making their classrooms places of inquiry. Primary teachers who have a passion for design and technology can make a difference in the future of the subject, which is currently under-theorised and which its implementers lack professional knowledge (pedagogy). Primary design and technology teachers in Cyprus share a common interest or a passion for the subject as soon as they get involved with it. They make a good team to become a community of practice. The absence of competitive culture between the teachers of design and technology is also a very good start for the constitution of a community. Time constraints, limited people involved in the teaching of the subject, and limited opportunities for regular collaboration might be the main obstacles for introducing real learning communities. There is a need for more opportunities for teachers to come together and learn from each another. The use of new technologies might play an important role in the creation of a learning community. Teaching material provided by design and technology advisors is published online in order the teachers to have an easy access to it, however remote and isolated a school might be. But the publishing of the material alone is not enough. Ways should be found so as any teacher could publish her own work or comment on others’ work. Opportunities for reflection are important for the learning community. However, the workload of teachers makes it difficult for them to get involved in many extra responsibilities. It is therefore, recommended that school leaders proactively respond to ensure that learning communities take place and proper venue and schedule are provided. In Cyprus education, there is still confusion about the nature and the philosophy of design and technology and the rationale for its place in the curriculum. How can we meet the challenges posed by a new model of practical scholarship? Kimbell et al. (1991) suggests that there is a broad educational interpretation of design and technology. He concludes that “in the schools context we must see the outcome of the activity not as three dimensional artefacts but as enriched and rounded young people” (p. 18). A learning community might help teachers overcome the confusion via collaboration and reflection. Are expert teachers on the subject so rare and novice teachers so many in Cyprus primary education that even a learning community would not enable the creation of new knowledge? In a learning community members are learning from each other, but what happens if in learning community novice teachers outnumber experts? A possible suggestion might be the development of this community to extend Cyprus education and include schools in the UK and/or other countries. New technologies and projects like Comenius would assist in this development. Learning communities might enhance teaching and learning in design and technology in Cyprus primary school in the following ways: interacting with design and technology advisors through: 1. exchanging teaching material 2. working together during workshops 3. reflecting interacting with design and technology teachers through: 1. co-teaching 2. watching others teach 3. reflecting creating networks through: 1. exchange of ideas 2. observations of teaching 3. reflecting 4. exchanging material participating in projects to be able to: 1. extending their knowledge to other countries 2. exchanging ideas 3. reflecting visiting the community to: 1. visiting experts 2. watching their work 3. exchanging ideas collaborating with parents and children by: 1. getting to know their children better 2. getting to know their needs 3. choosing projects according to their interests Learning should be the main interest of a teacher learning community, and the participants should facilitate learning through many activities. Collaboration between participants is vital for the success of the community. Teacher learning should be a collaborative product for the development of children. References: Bottery, M., 1996. The challenge to professionals from the new public management: Implications for the teaching profession, Oxford Review of Education, 22(2), pp.179-97. Bottery, M., 2003. The leadership of learning communities in a culture of unhappiness, School Leadership and Management, 23(2), pp.187-207. Bottery, M. & Wright, N., 2000. Teachers and the state: Towards a directed profession. New York, NY: Routledge. Bullough, R.V., Jr. & Baugh, S.C., 2009. Building professional learning communities within a university-public sschool partnership, Theory Into Practice, 47(4), pp.286-293. Cohran-Smith, M. and Lytle, S.L.,1999. Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning in communities, Review of Research in Education, 24, pp 249-305. Department of Education and Science and the Welsh Office, 198). 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