Nicotine: Features and Effects - Essay Example

Introduction Nicotine is a toxic chemical found in higher concentration in tobacco plants. Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana rustica, are two major species where nicotine is found in high concentration. Tobacco plants are categorized under nightshade member called Solanaceae family. Nicotine is natural constituent of some food plants. Other nicotine containing plants are potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, and sweet peppers, all Solanaceae family members. Fresh potatoes, tomatoes and sweet peppers possess very low concentration of nicotine around 10 μg/kg. Fresh eggplant might contain up to 100 μg of nicotine /kg. Nicotine levels might rise in formulated products up to 34 μg/kg (Andersson, Wennström & Gry, 2003, p. 9). In commercial cigarette tobacco, nicotine is present in around 1.5% by weight of the product and it constitutes for 95% of total alkaloid content (Hukkanen, Jacob, & Benowitz, 2005, p. 79). This organic compound is alkaloid in nature and consists of a pyridine cycle and a pyrrolidine cycle. This bicyclic chemical has an asymmetric carbon and so display enantiomeric behaviour. Nicotine is naturally found in S enantiomeric form in nature which is levorotatory (Hukkanen, Jacob, & Benowitz, 2005, p. 80). Nicotine’s IUPAC nomenclature is 3-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl) pyridine (Pubchem). Chemical formula is C5H4NC4H7NCH3 and Empirical formula of nicotine is C10H14N2. Its CAS number is 54-11-5 and molecular weight is 162.23156 [g/mol]. Nicotine is a hygroscopic, colourless to pale yellow oily base which have acrid burning bitter taste. Nicotine is also sensitive to air or light and on exposure changes its color to brown. Therefore it should be protected from light and air. It has relatively high vapour pressure and has ability to form salts with almost any acid, and double salts with many metals and acids. It is stored at room temperature not more than 30°C. The pKa-values of nicotine are: pKa1 6.16, and pKa2 10,96. Nicotine is highly soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, kerosene and oils, and is miscible with water below 60°C. The mixture of nicotine and water occupies less volume than water alone (Andersson, Wennström & Gry, 2003, p. 13). Initial isolation of nicotine from tobacco plant was done by German chemists Posselt & Reimann in 1828, who referred it as a poison (Henningfield & Zeller, 2006, p. 286). Its bicyclic chemical structure is fixed in 1895 by Pinner. Chemical structure of nicotine is shown in Figure 1 (pubchem). Chemical sythesis of nicotine was done in 1904 and structure is confirmed (Andersson, Wennström & Gry, 2003, p. 13). Figure 1 Structure of Nicotine Legal airborne permissible exposure limits at work places recommended by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration), NIOSH (national Institute of Occupational Safety and Health) are as follows. According to NIOSH Guidelines TWA: 0.5 mg/m3, IDLH: 5 mg/m3. OSHA regulations states TWA: 0.5 mg/m3, TWA Vacated: 0.5 mg/m3. Health & Regulatory Guidelines it is considered as highly toxic. Nicotine on the health hazard substance list is listed as follows. On NFPA scale (0 to 4), nicotine is rated for Health =4, for Fire=1 and for Reactivity=0. EPA Regulations: Reportable Quantity: 100 Lbs (Barbalace, 1995). Nicotine products and use The countries like South America, Russia, the former republics of the U.S.S.R., Poland, India, and Turkey use N. rustica for tobacco products, while in North America, Western Europe, and Africa they are made of N. tabacum. N. tabacum have four types of varieties which includes bright (Virginia), burley (Kentucky), Maryland, and Turkish (oriental) tobaccos. Leaves of Nicotiana tabacum L. (tobacco) are cured depending upon the type and then used for smoking, as cigars, cigarettes, or in pipes, or chewed, or used as snuff along with other ingredients and tobacco "without smoking". (FSANZ, 2003, p.6). Bright tobaccos are flue-cured by drying with artificial heat; burley and Maryland tobaccos are air-cured; and Turkish tobaccos are sun-cured (Hoffmann, p.58). Brand names or trade names of nicotine products are Nicabate, Nicobrevin, Nicotinell TTS, Nicorette, Nicoret, Cigarette tobacco, Black leaf, Nicocide, Nico-fume etc. Some of the major manufacturers and importers of nicotin are Ciba Geigy, Glaxo-Lake Pharmaceuticals, Lundbeck Ltd Merrell (de Landoni, 1991). Nicotine is used as an an adjunct to smoking cessation programes in the form of gums, patches (de Landoni, 1991). Historical or present day significance of nicotine Nicotine has undergone many transformations over human history. In the past history nicotine was indicated for the research study of the nervous system. It had played a pivotal role in physiology and pharmacology. Then it was investigated for its function in tobacco products. In recent years it’s medicinal use is in focus. For nicotine and tobacco product regulation, psychopharmacology research for addiction properties of tobacco is being more studied (Henningfield & Zeller, 2006). Until the early1900s, nicotine was not considered dangerous and due to its addiction property it captured market positively. All over the world it was considered as a valuable crop. The farmers, manufacturers and government all were enjoying soared sales of tobacco products and handsome income. The profits were growing and the products were promoted even to the soldiers during World War I and II. Even women were not ban to use tobacco products in public in 1920s. Movies, newspapers, magazines, marketing campaigns promoted use of these products. In 1920s, Federal Trade Commission focused and published medical journals on nicotine displayed its overuse ill effects. From 1990s, Federal and state government started playing active role against these products from public health point of view. This created awareness among people; and rules and regulations about the production, manufacture, sell and legal use of tobacco products came into picture (LeVert, 2006, p. 15). The therapeutic uses of Nicotine Nicotine is widely studied for treating depression. Nicotine is being investigated for modifying its addictive effect while maintaining its ability to increase levels of the various brain chemicals that can alter mood. Pharma companies are focusing on the development of nicotine like drugs that target chemical imbalances in the brain that are thought to cause anxiety, schizophrenia, attention deficient hyperactivity disorder, Alzheimers disease and Parkinsons disease (The Medical News, 2006). Dangers of Nicotine The perceived benefits of use of nicotine as seen by teenagers are far less than its potential bad consequences. Nicotine is considered as a serious threat to young population. Nicotine is categorized as highly “addictive” or “dependence producing” substance. Nicotine is highly poisonous substance and has rapid onset of action. Smoking related diseases remains in the forefront of deadliest disease epidemiology. Smoking related 440, 000 annual deaths are reported in United States alone. World Health Organisation has reported almost 10% of annual smoking related adult deaths and is the second leading cause of mortality (LeVert, 2006, p. 8). Psychoactive properties of nicotine affect cardiovascular, respiratory, skeletal motor and gastrointestinal system through stimulation of peripheral cholinergic neurons. Lethal doses of nicotine might lead to respiratory failure. Intake levels of nicotine obtained from tobacco smoking are enough to trigger autonomic and somatic reflex actions like burning sensation in the mouth and throat, salivation, dizziness, nausea, and/or vomiting for first time tobacco users (FSANZ, 2003, p. 12). Systemic effects of nicotine also include , headache, auditory and visual disturbances, confusion, weakness and lack of coordination. Cardiovascular effects include a transient increase in blood pressure, followed by hypertension, bradycardia, paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, or cardiac standstill etc (de Landoni, 1991). Severe poisoning might occur for lethal doses above 40 to 60 mg of nicotine in adults. This causes tremor, convulsions, coma and deaths from paralysis of respiratory muscles and/or central respiratory failure (FSANZ, 2003, p. 12; de Landoni, 1991). Economical and Social impact of Nicotine Social impact on communities which are dependent on tobacco production get directly affected if tobacco production is stopped. This is due to loss of job and financial loss linked with tobacco production. Other side of this is, if tobacco production is introduced, it might hamper local food production and local autonomy (Arcury & Quandt, 2006, p. 71). It has also been evaluated that direct and indirect exposure of tobacco led to lung cancer and other cancers which contributes to 30% of all cancer associated deaths. United States economy has major impact in term of health care expenditure and lost productivity. The annual expenditure accounts for around $ 150 billion on smoking related personal medical care (LeVert, 2006, p. 9). Nicotine has negative social consequence due to its addition character and effect on neurobiological mechanisms. Pleasurable or euphoriant effects of nicotine make the person addictive. It is positive reinforcer and has centrally mediated psychoactive effects (Lowinson, Ruiz, Millman & Langrod, 2004, p.384) and displays signs of addiction including a pattern of abuse involving escalating use, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms (FSANZ, 2003, p. 6). Substance abuse hampers important social, occupational or recreational activities. Future The global measures to stop and eliminate smoking are taken in right direction which is seen from the decline in tobacco product users. In 2004, United States Department of Agriculture had reported that each year 2-3% fall in cigarette smokers were observed from last decade. University of Michigan stated that 5000 teenagers are daily prone to first time use of smoking and therefore smoking still remains at the top list for potential health crisis (LeVert, 2006, p. 21). Advertisement Tobacco products containing nicotine are marketed through different through various different distribution channels including the internet. A television advertisement for a nicotine replacement patch, named Nicorette Patch is the subject of debate. The advertisement says it is the only patch designed for waking hours only and it is claiming that youre twice as likely to succeed with Nicorette daytime only. But the benefits of patch in heavy smokers from waking up with some nicotine in their system to beat morning cravings are already well established. Therefore, the advertisement is against the code of conduct and misleading (Condon, 2003). References LeVert, Suzanne. The Facts about Nicotine. Edition: illustrated. Published by Marshall Cavendish, 2006. de Landoni, Julia Higa. Nicotine. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1991. www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/nicotine.htm http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid=148704 Andersson, C., Wennström, P., Gry, J. Nicotine alkaloids in Solanaceous food plants. TemaNord (2003):531. http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-531.pdf Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ). Proposal P278. Use Of Nicotine And Nicotiana Species In Food. Initial Assessment Report. 8 October 2003. www.Foodstandards.Gov.Au/_Srcfiles/P278_Ia.Pdf Hukkanen, J., Jacob, P. and Benowitz N.L. Metabolism and Disposition Kinetics of Nicotine Pharmacol Rev 57 (2005):79-115. Henningfield, Jack E.& Zeller, Mitch. "Nicotine psychopharmacology", research contributions to United States and global tobacco regulation: A look back and a look forward. 184 (2006): 286-291. Kenneth, Barbalace. Chemical Database - Nicotine. EnvironmentalChemistry.com. 1995 - 2009. Accessed on-line: 5/30/2009 http://EnvironmentalChemistry.com/yogi/chemicals/cn/Nicotine.html Hoffmann, Dietrich & Hoffmann, Ilse. Chemistry and Toxicology. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 9 Arcury, Thomas A, Quandt, Sara A. Health and social impacts of tobacco production. Journal of agromedicine 11(3-4) (2006):71-81. The Medical News. Nicotine shows potential medical benefits 12 September 2006 19:17 http://www.news-medical.net/news/20091.aspx Substance abuse: a comprehensive textbook Lowinson, Joyce H., Ruiz, Pedro, Millman, Robert B. & Langrod, John G. Edition: 4, illustrated. Published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004 Doctor complains about nicotine patch ad. [Posted: Wed 30/04/2003] By Deborah Condon http://www.irishhealth.com/article.html?id=4853 Read More