How do Primary Schools Meet the Emotional, Psychological and Behavioural Needs of Pupils - Assignment Example

How do primary schools meet the emotional, psychological and behavioural needs of pupils? Consider the roles of the counselor and the teacher. "The elementary years are a time when students begin to develop their academic self-concept and their feelings of competence and confidence as learners. They are beginning to develop decision-making, communication and life skills, as well as and character values." (American School Counsellor Association, 2008). Thus it becomes important for educators to provide proper environment for the emotional, behavioural and psychological development of the pupils. Normal psychological developmental stages Child development is one of the most important topics for educators, parents and pediatricians. It occurs continuously from birth to adulthood. In the past, children were just considered as miniature adults and less attention was paid to their development, especially in the field of cognition, language and physical growth. However, the beginning of the 20th century saw growing interest in the field of child development. This enormous interest led to many theories proposed by researchers. It is important to understand these theories to understand child development properly. The child development theories can be classified into psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioural and social child development theories. The main proponents of psychoanalytic theories are Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Freud described child development as a series of psychosexual stages (Carver, & Scheir, 2000). The first stage is also known as oral stage. In this stage, the primary source of interaction to the infant is through mouth. Thus sucking and rooting reflexes are important and the infant derives pleasure from activities involving oral stimulation like tasting and sucking. Even trust and comfort to the infant is derived from oral stimulation. The primary conflict in this stage is weaning. Fixation in this stage leads to problems with eating and drinking and indulging in smoking and nail biting. The second stage is the anal stage. Gratification in this stage is gained by bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict in this stage is toilet training and how this conflict affects the child is dependent on the way parents approach toilet training. Training using rewards and praises leads to positive experiences and serves as a basis for the child to become productive, creative and competent adults. Parents who take a lenient approach to toilet training can lead to anal-expulsive personality wherein the individuals are destructive, messy and wasteful. On the other hand, strict toilet training leads to rigid, stringent, orderly and obsessive personality as the child grows into an adult. The next stage is the phallic stage. In this stage, the primary focus of libido is on the genitalia. Children discover the differences between males and females. While boys treat fathers as their rivals to gain the affection of the mother, girls treat their mother as rivals. This is known as Oedipus complex in females and Electra complex in males. In the next stage, the latent period, libido interests are suppressed and ego and superego dominate. The phase mainly starts around the time when children enter the school and show more interests in peer groups, play and hobbies. Development of communication skills, social relationships and self- confidence is seen in this stage. In the final stage, the genital stage, there is interest in the opposite sex. If the individual had completed other stages successfully, he/she will be warm, caring and balanced in this stage. Thus, according to Freuds theory, fixation in any stage can lead to behavioural, emotional and psychological problems in the school- age child. The most popular of child development theories is The Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (Van Wagner, 2008). This theory concentrates on development of ego identity. According to Erikson, there are eight stages of development and each stage is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. Good handling of each stage leads to ego strength, whereas poor management of any stage contributes to a sense of inadequacy. The experience of conflict is a turning point in the development. In the first stage, there is a conflict between trust and mistrust. This stage occurs between birth and one year of age. The development of trust depends on the quality of care delivered and dependability of the care givers. This stage is a fundamental stage and failure to develop trust can contribute to a feeling that the world is unpredictable and inconsistent. In the next stage, there is conflict between shame and doubt. This stage occurs in early childhood and toilet training is the most vital part. Erikson believed that learning to control ones body functions contributes to feeling of control and sense of independence. Clothing selection, toy preferences and food choices arise in this stage. Successful completion of this stage contributes to secured feeling and confidence; otherwise, the individual may develop feelings of inadequacy and doubt. The next phase occurs in the preschool years where there is conflict between initiative and guilt. Children start asserting their peers and successful completion of this stage leads to feelings of capability and ability to lead others. Those who do not complete this phase develop sense of guilt, self- doubt and lack of initiative. The fourth stage occurs in children between the ages 5 and 11. This stage is very important because encouragement from teachers and parents in this stage contributes to competence, accomplishment and feelings of pride in the children. Those who do not gain attention and encouragement in this stage will eventually develop lack of confidence and will doubt their ability to be successful. The next 3 stages start from adolescence and the individual passes through conflicts of identity vs. confusion, intimacy vs. isolation generality vs. stagnation and integrity vs. despair. Cognitive child development theory was mainly propagated by Jean Piaget who opined that cognitive development in children is dependent upon actions which later progresses into changes in mental operations (Van Wagner, 2008). The first stage of Piaget theory is from birth to about the age of 2 years. This stage is known as the sensorimotor’ stage. In this stage, the infant tries to make sense of the world but the activities are limited to their sensory perceptions and motor activities. This stage has many substages which include reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, tertiary circular reactions and early representational thought. The stage of early representational thought occurs between 18 to 24 months and it is in this time that children begin to understand the world through mental operations. The next stage is the preoperational stage which occurs between 2 to 6 years of age. This stage is characterized by egocentrism wherein children cannot understand logic, they cannot manipulate information and also are not in a position to understand others point of view. Language development is marked in this stage and children increasingly adept at using symbols which is evident in playing and pretending. The third stage in Piagets theory is the stage of concrete operations. This stage occurs between 7 to 11 years. Children understand mental operations better, but they cannot understand hypotheses and abstracts. They are good at the use of inductive logic. In this stage, children also are aware that actions can be reversed. This is known as reversibility. The last stage is the formal operational stage. This begins at about 12 years of age and lasts into adulthood. Logical thinking, understanding abstract concepts, deductive reasoning and systematic planning develop in this stage. Piaget focused on qualitative development. This focus had an impact on education. Many educational programs and instructional strategies are now based on Piagets theory. While psychoanalytical and cognitive theories assist understanding of psychological development of children, behavioural theories and social theories help in the understanding of environmental and social influences on child development. From these theories it is evident that child development is actually a complex process and fixation at any stage can lead to problems related to emotions, behaviour and psychology. Factors contributing to normal psycho-social development of a child What children need for proper and fruitful development can be known by understanding Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. These needs are best displayed in the form of a pyramid. The lowest levels of pyramid are made up of the most basic needs and the more complex ones are placed at the top of the pyramid (Maslow, 2000). According to Maslow, there are five types of needs that play a major role in motivating behaviour. These are physiological, security, social, esteem and growth needs. The first four needs are deficiency or D- needs and these arise due to deprivation. They form the lower parts of the pyramid and satisfying them is essential to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences. The last one is the growth need, also known as being needs or B-needs. Growth needs arise from desire to grow as a person. Based on these needs there are five different levels in the Hierarchy of Needs. The most basic needs are physiological needs and these are vital for survival. These include the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Security needs include safe neighborhoods, steady employment, health insurance, and shelter from the environment. Social needs are belonging, love, and affection. Esteem needs are those which reflect on personal worth, accomplishment and self- esteem. The highest level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is occupied by self- actualizing needs necessary for personal growth and development. Factors having negative influence on the emotions, behaviour and psychology of children Several risk factors have been identified which contribute to the genesis of emotional and behavioural problems in school children. These risk factors exert influences in a cumulative fashion. Most of the times, problems arise due to complex interaction between biological and environmental risk factors. Some of the documented risk factors include negative family events like domestic violence, maternal psychopathology and low socioeconomic status ((Jensen et al., 1990; Williams et al., 1990 as qtd. in Abdel- Fattah, et al, 2004). Abdel- Fattah et al (2004) reported that maternal occupation influenced behaviour of the child. They attributed this to decreased parental monitoring and decreased time spent with the children. Other important factors influencing child mental development include level of central nervous system functioning, perinatal complications, medical illnesses. Various studies have reported the association between perinatal complications and child psychopathology (Abdel- Fattah, et al, 2004). Perinatal complications have impact on brain development and functioning. Inconsistent or contradictory parenting style, family or marital problems between parents, child abuse and neglects, separation and overindulgence also contribute to psychosocial problems in children. The way in which these factors influence psychology of children is dependent upon the temperament, developmental stage, nature and duration of stress and also coping and adaptive abilities of the family (Harland et al, 2002). The effects of these factors may be seen immediately or after some time. Young children have a tendency to react to certain stressful events with impaired physiological functions like sleep disturbances and feeding irregularities. Children who are older react by exhibiting disturbances in relationships with friends and family, poor school and academic performance, regression of behaviour to an early stage and development of certain psychological conditions like phobia, anxiety and depression. Meeting emotional, psychological and behavioural needs of pupils in schools Role of teachers: 10 to 20% of school- age children suffer from emotional and behavioural problems (Kottler & Kottler, 1993; qtd. in Hornby, Hall & Hall, 2003). After parents, teachers are in an ideal position to help pupils with their psychological, emotional and behavioural development. This is because; teachers are in touch with the students over a long period of time and hence are in a position to identify those children who are experiencing difficulties. They can also bring their concerns to the attention of parents. Hence it is necessary for teachers to be trained in counselling skills and this aspect has been discussed in various Government reports (Elton report, 1989, qtd. in Hornby, Hall & Hall, 2003) and pastoral publications. Teachers also must work closely with parents and also other professionals such as psychologists and social workers. Pastoral strategies: Pastoral strategies are the means by which a school provides pastoral care to its pupils. Four levels of counselling are needed in schools. These are: 1. Level-1: Use of counselling skills in class room: This is to provide a positive learning atmosphere and also provide high levels of pupil self- esteem. 2. Level- 2: Use of counselling skills by the former tutor: This is to help students solve day- to- day problems and to facilitate various group activities which are a part of schools PSE programme. 3. Level- 3: Use of trained specialist within school: The trained specialist can be a school counsellor or guidance counsellor, a senior teacher with pastoral experience or a head or year or house. The specialist can train individuals or even small groups. 4. Level- 4: Referral procedures: Pupils can have access to professionals like psychiatrists and psychologists through referral services in the school. Role of school counselor: "Counselling is the skilled and principled use of a relationship to facilitate self knowledge, emotional acceptance and growth, and the optimal development of personal rsources. The overall aim is to provide an opportunity to work towards living more satisfyingly and resourcefully" (British Association of counselling, 1991, p.1 as qtd. in Hornby, Hall & Hall, 2003). School counselor is actually an educator who works with school children providing them with personal and social competencies and academic help. Counselling in primary schools is aimed at promoting personal growth and development of each students potential to the optimum level. The objective of education is to produce resourceful, contented and productive citizens. Unlike other counsellor relations, the relationship between a school counsellor and student is that of teacher- pupil. Primary school counsellors work with school staff, parents and the community and set up a team for comprehensive developmental school counseling program. With this team, they create a caring climate and atmosphere. They provide the following aspects in the program (American School Counsellor Association, 2008): 1. School Guidance Curriculum: Through this, the counsellors provide academic support. They help the child develop organizational, study and test-taking skills. They provide career awareness, exploration and planning. They also help in communication, problem-solving and conflict resolution. 2. Individual Student Planning: The counsellors not only have a general program, they also plan as per the individual needs based on individual strengths and weaknesses. 3. Responsive services: Counsellors intervene during individual/family/school crises. They participate in conflict resolution. They refer to other faculties appropriately. 4. System support: Primary school counsellors involve in professional development of children. They assist in consultation, collaboration and teaming. Schools can further emphasize on the emotional, psychological and behavioural development of the pupils by introducing certain programmes like Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) and also by introducing Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE) in the school curriculum. SEAL This is a voluntary programme for development of social and emotional skills of all pupils (Teachernet, 2008). These skills are developed by means of whole school approach. In this approach, an atmosphere is created in the school that promotes and consolidates good skills. Across the curriculum, direct and focused learning opportunities are created for whole classes. The teaching approaches are such that they support pupils to learn social and emotional skills. The whole school staff is in a process of continuing professional development. The teaching and learning approaches used by SEAL are familiar to teachers. Pupils who do not have proper opportunities to develop appropriate skills from home environment are also benefited by this programme. Five important skills which are specifically targeted are: self- awareness, managing feelings, empathy, motivation and social skills. Development of these skills contributes to regular attendance, positive behaviour, employability, social mobility, learning and well being. Thus SEAL aims at providing a safe and emotionally healthy school environment where effective learning can happen to the pupils. PSHE This is a part of school curriculum introduced in the schools of England and Northern Ireland. This subject deals with certain statutory elements like alcohol, illicit drugs and sexual relationships. It also deals with many other aspects of health and personal growth. Teachers imparting PSHE need special training because this is not a regular subject and the knowledge and answers cannot be found in a text book. Teaching this subject involves lot of listening and speaking. According to Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2007), “PSHE helps to give children the knowledge and skills they need to lead confident, healthy and independent lives. It aims to help them understand how they are developing personally and socially, and tackles many of the moral, social and cultural issues that are part of growing up." Conclusion Children of primary school age have various behaviour, emotional and psychological needs which have to met by the schools because these children spend quite a lot of time during the day in schools and proper development of these skills is essential for competent, confident and fruitful living. Since teachers are second- parents and they spend lot of time over a long period of time, they are in a position to help students develop these skills. Thus it becomes obvious for schools to introduce learning and teaching approaches that facilitate proper psycho-social development of the pupils. References Abdel- Fattah, M.M. et al (2004). Emotional and Behavioral Problems Among Male Saudi Schoolchildren and Adolescents: Prevalence and Risk Factors. German Journal of Psychiatry. Retrieved on 27 Dec 2008 from http://www.gjpsy.uni-goettingen.de/gjp-article-abdel-fattah.pdf American School Counsellor Association. (2008). Why Elementary School Counsellors. Retrieved on 27 Dec 2008 from http://www.schoolcounselor.org/content.asp?contentid=230 Carver, C.S. & Scheir, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on Personality. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Harland, P., Reijneveld, S.A., Brugman, E., et al; Family factors and life events as risk factors for behavioural and emotional problems in children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 11(4):176-84. Hornby, G., Hall & Hall. (2003). Counselling Pupils in Schools. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Maslow, A.H. (2000). The Hierarchy of Needs.: An article from: Thinkers [HTML] (Digital). Teachernet (Govt. of UK). (2008). Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning. Retrieved on 1 January, 2009 from http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/ Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (2007). PSHE in Primary Schools. Retrieved on 1 January, 2009 from http://www.qca.org.uk/qca_14701.aspx Van Wagner, K. (2008). Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development. Psychology.com. Retrieved on 27 Dec 2008 from http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev.htm Van Wagner, K. (2008). Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development. Retrieved on 27 Dec 2008 from http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosocial.htm Read More