The Concept of Transfer Make about the Development of and the Application of Knowledge - Essay Example

What assumptions does the concept of transfer make about the development of and the application of knowledge and skills in and between education and workplace settings and in what way might these assumptions be problematic? Introduction Vocational education has been viewed as the province of low achieving students who are unable to effectively assimilate the knowledge that is imparted at school. Transfer skills are particularly important in vocational education because of its importance in providing effective training to improve performance in the workplace. The challenge for vocational educational programmes is therefore to provide effective support to students so that they are able to effectively make the transition from school to the workplace. This assignment deals with the concept of transfer of knowledge and skills from school to the workplace and how effectively an understanding of the transfer process helps to evaluate the degree to which this is being achieved. Existing vocational education curricula are unable to effectively bring about the transfer of students from the context of the school to the workplace. What are the reasons for this and what is the role of knowledge and skills acquisition in the transfer process? These are the questions I will attempt to answer in this essay. The concept of knowledge This first section discusses the concept of knowledge itself, in order to provide a basis for assessing how far the transfer of such knowledge is supported by vocational education. It will examine the different kinds of knowledge as well as skills and the importance of possessing them in the workplace. Knowledge may be tacit, explicit or situated. While situated knowledge is relevant within a particular work context and may be taught through workplace training and the use of handbooks and manuals tacit knowledge is group knowledge that develops within a specific cultural context and may be more difficult to replicate (Guile and Young 2003). Guile ([2002] citing Drucker [1993]) mentions that some authors view knowledge as an embrained phenomenon, for example, it exists either as a product of someone’s mental abilities or as data that may be found on websites, therefore innovation in such an instance will involve transfer of skill and expertise from one section of an organization to another. Other authors such as Noneka and Takeuchi ([1995] as cited by Guile [2002]) have suggested that the development of innovation in business is dependent upon the extent to which the tacit knowledge possessed by the firm is successfully exploited, and thus treat knowledge as an encultured phenomenon. In addition, Guile (2002) states that authors such as Hamel and Prahalad (1994) offer the view that if firms are to successfully innovate, they should focus upon identifying and exploiting their core capabilities. On this basis therefore knowledge becomes an embedded entity and constitutes the specific combination of special technological, cultural and social skills which provide them with a competitive edge in the marketplace. Lastly, some authors see knowledge as being encoded within the existing design of products and services, hence innovation largely depends upon those skilled individuals who have been involved in the process of coding and have access to the information on the coding process (Zuboff, 1988). The prevailing belief is that knowledge represents the primary source of wealth for organizational success and firms are being placed under increasing pressure to create value for shareholders through the effective use of its intangible assets like knowledge, and skills in innovation (Guile [2002] citing Kim and Mauborgne, 1999; Nonaka and Teece [2001]). In a globalized economy which has been revolutionized through the emergence of the internet, the success of an organization is dependent upon innovation to provide an edge in the marketplace. Innovation and wealth creation is dependent upon successful acquisition and exploitation of tacit or group organizational knowledge, thereby also placing a premium on skills in work roles. Nonaka and Teece (2001) also point out that knowledge sharing leads to a more reflexive relationship between the knowledge held by their customers as well as their employees. Due to organizational changes that are taking place in the knowledge based economy, employers are increasingly demanding a broader base of skills in employees. In addition to the knowledge of routine tasks which may be provided by companies, young people may need to possess generic skills, or a wider ranging base of skills which includes problem solving and can be successfully applied to a variety of situations (Guile, 2002:263). The different types of generic skills include honesty, punctuality, and the ability to follow instructions, manage feelings and serve the interests of customers. Generic skills can also include certain key skills which are perceived to be relevant in the context of most forms of modern work. These may include technical skills or the knowledge about products, functional skills or the management of performance and motivational skills or the commitment to organizational goals (Guile, 2002:264). Candidates may also require intellective skills, which refer to the skills required to work in environments where there is access to encoded knowledge. (Zuboff, 1988). The kinds of knowledge that are provided in vocational and professional educational programmes combined, include (a) theoretical knowledge about concepts in the subject discipline so that students can apply them in understanding the occupation and new forms of practice (b) methodological knowledge which includes knowledge about how evidence is collected, analyzed and interpreted in organizational contexts (c) practical skills and techniques acquired through workshops and training sessions (d) generic skills, which include basic language skills, interpersonal communication and self management skills and (e) general knowledge about the occupation, structure and values and career opportunities (Eraut, 2004:205). Vocational curricula however, transmit only codified knowledge or the theory, while the responsibility for actual practice, which comprises tacit and situated knowledge, has been transferred to workplaces. According to Guile and Young, it is necessary for students of vocational training programmes to understand that tacit knowledge, while essential at the workplace, is not itself adequate to ensure workplace capability (Guile and Young, 2003:69). Secondly, students cannot fully gain from the knowledge at the workplace without the added benefit of codified knowledge. The relative efficacy of codified knowledge will also depend upon the manner in which it is administered. Finally, knowledge acquired in school requires re-thinking in application at the workplace (Guile and Young, 2003:69). Codified knowledge cannot be transferred as is, into the workplace, rather it needs to be processed further in the context of the workplace and students are not currently guided on how to facilitate such processing. Therefore, vocational education programmes should be designed in such a manner that they are able to provide the means for students to effectively make the connection between theory and practice. Traditional beliefs about skill had an implicit assumption about individualism and the belief could be separated from the context in which they work. Skill was viewed as an independent commodity that could be broken down into component units, which could be taught through vocational programs by teaching students specific tasks (Guile, 2002:262). But the acquisition of generic skills may be more important in preparing students for the workplace. Preparing students to perform effectively in the workplace requires (a) assisting young people in developing context free skills in context specific situations and (b) designing a curriculum to enable students to mediate the codified knowledge acquired through formal school study to the situated knowledge acquire din the workplaces.(Guile 2002:267) On the basis of the above, it may thus be seen that in a knowledge based economy, the effective transmission of knowledge and skills is vital. The effectiveness of workers in the workplace will depend upon how effectively they are able to apply knowledge they have acquired within the school context to the work environment. Moreover, in a knowledge based economy, students may also be required to posses an additional range of generic skills that are appropriate to the work related context. Vocational schools have traditionally relied upon employers to provide students with experience and skills relevant to the work context. But while employers can provide workers with mechanical and other basic functional skills, workers may also be required to possess generic skills such as interactive and intellective skills, which are necessary for students to function effectively in the workplace. Vocational schools may be focusing too much on the transmission of codified knowledge while leaving students to acquire other skills at the workplace. But with employers demanding a more widely based range of knowledge and skills, vocational educational programmes should tackle the issue of effectively imparting such skills at school by imparting the theoretical basis of knowledge in such a manner that students can more effectively make the connection between theory and practice in the workplace. Vocational educational curricula may need to be designed in such a way that it not only teaches students to transfer knowledge and skill between contexts but also equips them with the ability to mediate between changing identities and changing contexts. The Transfer process This section will define what a transfer process is and discuss different conceptions of the transfer process. Each of these conceptions will be discussed in the context of the conception of knowledge that they are predicated on. Transfer has been defined as the ability to use knowledge and skills within contexts that are different from the one where the learning was originally acquired, in terms of “subjects, settings, people, behaviors and/or time” (Stokes and Baer, 1977:350). The transfer process may be positive or negative, in the case of the former, the individual is able to effectively apply the knowledge learned in a previous context with a new context, but in the latter, the knowledge hinders learning and performance within the new context. Early educators tended to believe that the mind could be trained with mental exercise, but in the 20th century, most of the assumptions made in vocational education about the transfer of knowledge are based upon the views of Thorndike and Judd. Edward Thorndike (1924) proposed the theory of identical elements, whereby certain elements such as specific facts and skills learnt in one situation are also transferred to other learning situations through practice. Judd (1939) on the other hand, proposed that generalizations rather than identical elements are transferred to new learning situations (Tuomi-Grohm and Engeström 2003). Some authors such as Lave and Wenger (1991) argue the concept of transfer itself does not exist and offer the view that all learning that takes place is specific to the situation within which it occurs. This results in the acquisition of situated knowledge that is relevant to that particular context. However, this view is belied by experience of daily life where even children attempt to apply learning gained in one context into another context. The application of knowledge gained in one context in a different context is therefore relevant in assessing the extent to which a vocational student is likely to be able to effectively function in the workplace by a process of transfer of the knowledge acquired at school in the workplace. Guile (2006) has argued that in the aftermath of the Lave and Wenger (1991) position on transfer, vocational educational training programmes have overlooked the link that exists between vocational curricula and workplace practice. One important aspect of the situated learning propounded by Lave and Wenger (1991) is that it conceptualizes expertise as the dynamic acquisition of knowledge through learning that is founded in practice. Hence, expertise is not so much the mere acquisition of knowledge itself as it is about participation within a community of practice. These authors state that full participation in a community of practice requires (a) learning about a social practice (b) access to and participation in community activities (c) engagement over time to acquire the requisite situation-relevant knowledge and skills (d) full participation also requires an understanding of cultural norms and practices, with the ability to be adaptable to the context within which they are working, since it is the context which will determine acceptable behaviour (Billett, 2001: 445). This theory of communities of practice as suggested by Lave and Wenger (1991) is thus relevant in the development of expertise within a particular vocational context. The effectiveness of the transfer process could be enhanced by viewing it as a process of consequential transition, of which four different types have been identified- lateral, collateral, encompassing and mediational.(Guile, 2002:268) Lateral and collateral transitions pertain to the changes occurring slowly within contexts while individuals students are also changing as they transfer skills and knowledge acquired in one context to other contexts. Work experience per se may not successfully imbue students with the generic skills to learn to negotiate their own learning, it is the opportunity to participate meaningfully in a community of practice which may enable students to adjust and adapt in changing contexts where established precedents may not exist, for example as in workplaces where technology is being developed. The weakness with the transfer learning view of Lave and Wenger (1991) is that it cannot be applied effectively in polycontextual conditions. The transfer process is thus a process of transition between different activity systems (Guild and Young, 2003). According to Engeström et al ([1995] as cited by Ludvigsen et al [2003]) with complex work situations in particular, agents are required to move between and interact in different settings and they may not always be familiar with all of these settings and this is known as polycontextuality. The process of transfer of knowledge from one situation to the other thus requires the individual to cross boundaries in terms of the cognitive adjustments that have to be made in adapting to different contexts. The reliance on situated learning also diminishes the importance of the relation between workplace learning and the effectiveness of vocational education, when a disproportionate reliance is placed on learning acquired in the workplace. The “situated learning” approach mooted by Lave and Wenger (1991) views learning as “a set of relations among persons, activity and world, over time and in relation with other tangential and overlapping communities of practice” (Lave and Wenger, 1991:98). Under this concept, learning is viewed as the process of becoming a member within a particular community of practice, so that “developing an identity as a member of the community and becoming knowledgably skilful are part of the same process” (Lave, [1991:4] as by Fuller and Unwin, [1998]). Learning is thus a central aspect of community relations. But this does not adequately take into account, the importance of vocational education in acquiring the ability to effectively transfer knowledge into the workplace. Fuller and Unwin (1998) expand this learning approach of Lave and Wenger (1991) and suggest that learner centred and teacher centred activities in a vocational education programme should not be viewed as incompatible with each other, but rather as “interdependent aspects of an expansive learning process” (Fuller and Unwin, 1998:163). Fuller and Unwin (1998) have presented the model of apprenticeship as comprising three different dimensions: (a) the contractual work framework which represents the respective obligations of employer and employee (b) the cultural and social aspects of the workplace and (c) informal learning processes both on and of job, associated with the apprenticeship concept. The process of successfully carrying out this transfer and moving across contexts may also be facilitated by boundary objects which are defined as “objects which are both plastic enough to adapt to local needs and the constraints of several people employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a common identify across sites” (Ludvigsen et al [2003] citing Star and Griesemer, [1989:393]). Consequently, boundary objects are akin to an analytical concept which may have different meanings in different social worlds, yet have a common underlying structure which is recognizable. One such example that may be cited is the learning network comprising the major participant groups such as learners, employers, teachers, programme researchers and designers, which allows students to learn within a group context that can be replicated at other workplaces as well (Fuller and Unwin, 1998:161). In the context of knowledge, workshops, web portals and case studies can form a strong basis of boundary objects, and also provide some forums for the effective networking of knowledge between vocational schools and employers for effective transfer and networking of knowledge. These boundary objects function as the means of communication within different communities of practice and play an important role especially in an evolving context, because they are “adaptable to different viewpoints” while at the same time they are “robust enough to maintain identity across them.” (Ludvigsen et al [2003] citing Star and Griesemer [1989:387]). According to Cornford (2002) Billett is of the view that vocational education teachers should also consider issues of disembedded and embedded knowledge; ultimately the effectives of the transfer process will be dependent upon the individual making a conscious decision about the application of past learning experiences. Guile (2006) suggests that where the process of learning to move between the differing contexts of education and work is concerned, there has been an underlying presupposition that students automatically grasp the interdependence of theory and practice. He argues that post the Lave Wenger (1991) position of the non existence of transfer itself has resulted in a reliance on the situated learning concept in vocational education, generating the current practice of leaving learners locked into practice and disassociated from theory or placing them in the position where they should attempt to make the connection between the theory of school and the practice of the workplace on their own. According to Guile (2006) Vygotsky has underlined the need for learning programmes to provide scope for students to understand the generalizations that are contained within theoretical concepts, because this enables the student to make the necessary connections between different contexts. He highlights the interdependent nature of concepts as follows: “By its very nature, each concept presupposes the presence of certain systems of concepts. Outside such a system, it cannot exist” (Vygotsky, 1997:224). Vygotsky maintains that an individual’s theoretical understanding of concepts is based upon the foundation provided by already existing everyday concepts. Hence, when the individual learns a new theoretical concept, a repositioning takes place without mollifying the already existing concepts. This results in the individual “acquiring whose series of new relationships” with the new concept that is being learnt (Vygotsky, 1987:223). The attempt of formal educational programmes however is to teach theoretical concepts in their pure form, without taking into account the mediation that occurs between the student’s existing concepts and the new concept and fashions his/her understanding of it (Guile, 2006:262). Improving the transfer process This section deals with the question of how the transfer process can be improved to provide higher levels of efficacy. The existing notion that the mind containing knowledge is remote from the skin is increasingly being challenged in the sphere of vocational education, especially because performance in one situation within a particular domain of knowledge does not automatically guarantee or predict successful performance in another (Billett, 2001:432). The issues involved in the transfer of learning are very important due to the impact of the technological revolutions which has changed the face of business and increased competitiveness (Lave, 1989). Guile and Griffiths (2001) have pointed out that existing studies on work experience have been assumed to take place in a stable, unchanging environment where students can easily develop, whereas this is not actually the case. On this basis, they argue that an analysis of work experience should take into account the differing contexts of school and work, the extent to which students should negotiate their school experience in the work context and the extent to which students are to be provided support in relating formal and learning experience, in view of the fact that knowledge is unevenly distributed in the workplace (Guile and Griffiths, 2001:127). Guile (2006) suggests that the basis for an alternative practice in terms of the relation between theory and practice should be based upon the generalization of concepts approach that has been put forward by Vygotsky. He has argued that it is possible to develop a holistic theory of the relation between the mind and the world, wherein theory and practice are not dualistic concepts rather they reflect different outcomes of specialized practice. Mediating between theory and everyday concepts occurs through social networking by giving and asking for reasons in order to locate mediated outcomes. One of the important implications of application of the situated learning approach within the context of workplace apprenticeship is the role of legitimate peripheral participation in the communities of practice. On this basis therefore, vocational education should adopt a more expansive approach, allowing peripheral elements to play a role in the development of learner skills. For example, applying Wenger’s ([1988] as cited by Fuller and Unwin [2003]) argument that communities which provide participants with the ability to both engage and disengage are more likely to be effective learning environments. Hence an expansive approach to apprenticeship should also include the opening up of the learning process to peripheral influences, for example through “excursions and fleeting contacts” (Wenger, 1998:185). A modified workplace apprenticeship must also acknowledge the pedagogical importance of “developing and reifying the workplace curriculum” (Fuller and Unwin, 2003:424). Fuller and Unwin (1998), on the basis of their examination of the learning associated with apprenticeship, have suggested that it may be reconceptualised as an increasing level of participation in the dynamic community of practice through the application of both theoretical and practical knowledge, which is focused on the changing relationship between work and learning. As a part of this process, they have suggested the transformation of the learning process as follows: (a) analysis of changing work practices and modifying apprenticeship goals and the content of learning programmes (b) development of multi-skills through the creation of an association between learning, production and work organization (c) creation of an educative environment both on and off job (d) development of an expansive learning approach, including the ability to question, criticize and transform practice (d) establishment of mechanisms that will facilitate collaboration between local employers and vocational educators and (e) participation of non traditional groups in apprenticeship (Fuller and Unwin, 1998:169). Tuomi-Grohm and Engeström (2003) offer the suggestion of an expanded learning programme in handling the question of transfer of a student from school to the workplace more efficiently. Schools should become partners with companies and proliferation and consolidation should be included in the learning cycle to achieve boundary crossing. Boundary crossing in learning through work experience involves the “formation of new mediation concepts” and may be analyzed as a “process of collective concept formation” which helps students to develop the kind of social interaction which supports dialogic problem solving (Guile and Griffiths, 2001:127). Guile and Young (2003:77) have posed two questions which clarify the problem of transfer. Firstly, how are students to question the knowledge acquired in the workplace within the perspective of the codified knowledge in the curriculum? Secondly, how can students make this codified knowledge meaningful on the basis of their experience in the workplace? These questions have been addressed through the concept of “activity development” as conceptualized by Van Oers ([1998] as cited by Guile and Young [2003]). This concept is based on the underlying premise that the process of acquisition of knowledge cannot be separated from the context within which it occurs. Since the context always places a restriction on the cognitive processes of people within a particular context, it is important to introduce the persons to alternative contexts where they can have access to different ideas and visions about their situation. This goal can be achieved through the process of activity development. In this way, people can free themselves from the restrictions placed on their thinking within one context. Van Oers (1998) suggests the development of abstract thinking as one way to decontextualize and recontextualize the pattern of thinking to provide fresh ways of thinking. He argues that when an individual engages in an activity pattern, this may stimulate thoughts and ideas that are more complex than originally intended and thus stimulate innovation and creativity. In a case study of sales engineers carried out by Ludvigsen et al (2003), trainees are successfully able to achieve transfer by exposing them to different activity systems and requiring them to apply rules and principles, using boundary objects such as bids which combines standardization and flexibility, to customize them for different customers. Guile and Griffiths (2001) present five different types of models of work experience, including the connective model. These models take into account changes in policy, in contexts, and skills required in learners as well as new ideas of learning and pedagody, within a changing social, economic and technological environment as an “evolving continuum of approaches to learning through work experience”(Guile and Griffiths, 2001: 128). Application of such models may help to aid the process of transfer. Facilitating the process of consequential transition needs to be a goal of the transfer process. Educators and policy makers need to be aware that transition does not merely involve the launching of a student into the workplace, since this is a field of considerable disparity. As a result, educators need to develop models of work place which enhance the process of horizontal development or situated learning through the provision of a knowledge rich environment.(Guile 2002:269). When students are provided the opportunity to engage meaningfully in a community of practice, it provides them the opportunity to successfully apply their knowledge. Educational institutions must develop the kinds of curricula that help young people to relate their vertical and horizontal knowledge in developing new skills and knowledge. This may possibly be achieved through inclusion of work experience a s apart of new programs of learning. Educational institutions are adopting new pedagogic strategies, such as (a)encouraging young people to link their workplace experience to their programme of study (b) ensuring students develop the intellectual to criticise existing practices and develop alternatives with others and (c) encouraging learners to resituate their knowledge and skill in different contexts and contribute to the development of new knowledge.(Guile 2002:272) Conclusion One of the deficiencies of the traditional school system is the high level of emphasis that is placed upon knowledge that is presented in a codified form through textbooks and curricula (Guile and Young, 2003:73). However, within a work context, the student also requires situated knowledge or knowledge that is specifically relevant to the work context. Most vocational curricula do not make the process of transfer of knowledge explicit, rather it is assumed that the students will automatically transfer the knowledge they have acquired through the school curricula within the work context. The imparting of codified knowledge is viewed as the responsibility of schools and colleges, while the responsibility for imparting situated and tacit knowledge is viewed as the responsibility of employers. Students are left to make the connections between these two types of knowledge, whereas it may be necessary to effectively integrate the two and allow the students to develop some situated and tacit knowledge side by side by teaching them to apply codified knowledge concepts in the work situation (Guile and Young, 2003:79). In view of globalization and the need for organizations to maintain competitiveness in the market, employees are required to not only possess general and specialized skills but also possess the ability to apply them in a rapidly changing context. As a result achieving a positive transfer from school to the workplace, with the ability to apply the principles and knowledge learnt in school within a different context at work is paramount in achieving more successful apprenticeship and vocational training programmes. On the basis of the detailed discussions above, it may be concluded that there is a strong case for transfer that is suggested in the literature. Students need to acquire general skills together with specialized skills. While it is ultimately the individual that can make the decision on when and where to apply previous learning experiences, vocational educators can aid this process by actively training the students to achieve transfer rather than assuming that students can automatically carry out the process. This may require coordination and association of local employers with vocational educators, together with the use of peripheral elements such as workshops and distant contacts, as well as boundary objects such as workshops, web portals and case studies in more effectively preparing students to achieve a positive transfer. Educational curricula must be more effectively integrated with workplace experience, helping students to integrate vertical and horizontal learning, in encouraging learners to relate workplace experience with codified knowledge and resituate knowledge in different contexts. It may thus be concluded that vocational educational programmes are currently achieving low levels of success because they have tended to rely on the situated learning concepts which minimize the impact of transfer. However, the teaching of pure concepts in vocational educational training is unlikely to be beneficial to employees in the workplace, rather they should first acquire a solid base of skills and knowledge and provided aid and training in being able to effectively apply those principles within different contexts. References Billett, S. (2001). Knowing in practice: re-conceptualising vocational expertise. Learning and Instruction, 11, pp. 431-452. Cornford, L. R. (2002). Two models for promoting transfer: a comparison and critical analysis. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 54(1), pp. 85-102. Eraut, M. (2004). The Transfer of Knowledge between Education and Workplace Settings, in: Rainbird, H., Fuller, A. & Munro, A. (eds) Workplace Learning in Context. 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