Teenage Suicide and Homicide Trends - Essay Example

Teenage Suicide & Homicide Trends: A Review of the Literature & Statistics Joseph Gangi Criminal Justice 766 Tompkins October 22, 2007 Research Question? Do the number of suicide and homicide victims vary by race? [Between 1990 and 2004, suicide was more prevalent than homicide for non-Hispanic white juveniles, while the reverse was true for Hispanic juveniles and non-Hispanic black juveniles] Teenage Suicide & Homicide Trends: Introduction The causes of criminal behaviour are very difficult to be identified. In fact, it could be stated that in most cases it is an issue of personal attitude of a particular person. The situation is rather similar between adults and teenagers, however in case of juvenile’s criminal behaviour (especially when juveniles are the victims) is very likely to lead to a severe disruption of the person’s psychosomatic balance (if able to survive from the relevant attack). On the other hand, there are data that lead to the assumption that race can be a decisive criterion for the criminal behaviour against juveniles. The views of the theory do not seem to agree totally on such an aspect, however it would be rather difficult to formulate a precise assumption since the identification of the exact reasons of a specific criminal behaviour can just be assumed (as already explained above). A series of issues like the personal experiences and stress can severely affect human behaviour and in these terms the criminal behaviour against juveniles could not be considered as having a particular cause. However, the weakness of juveniles to respond to the attack (psychological or physical) is regarded as a common reason for the development of criminal behaviour against them. In the case of suicide, it is also this weakness of juveniles to respond to the pressure of a particular difficulty. Current Statistics The statistics involving in the criminal behaviour against juveniles are indicative of the extension of the problem. More specifically, in accordance with a series of statistics published by the Youth Violence Research Bulletin (2004) ‘between 1981 and 1998, 20,775 juveniles ages 7–17 committed suicide in the United States—nearly as many as were homicide or cancer victims; males were the victims in 78% of these juvenile suicides; over the same period, the suicide rate for American Indian juveniles was far higher than for any other race’. Between 1980 and 2000 52% of juvenile victims were black and 46% white. The rest were American Indians, Alaska Native, Asian and Pacific Islander. (Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004) Suicide is the second-leading cause of death for American Indian and Alaska Native youth of 15 -24 years old with such prevailing risk factors as depression and substance abuse. (Youth Suicide Prevention, 2005) Judge & Billick (2004) also report the highest suicide rate for American Indian adolescents, particularly ‘boys aged 15 to 19 years who commit suicide at a rate of 27.7 per 100,000 per year.’ It seems from the above figures that there is a relation between suicide and race. Conditions of living or work can be considered as potential reasons for the above differentiation. Towards the same direction, in research made by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention it has been found that ‘a white juvenile between ages 7 and 17 was nearly 1.5 times more likely to commit suicide than to be murdered, while black youth were almost 7 times more likely to be murdered than to commit suicide’ (Youth Violence Research Bulletin, 2004). The research of Grunbaum et al. (2002 in Judge & Billick, 2004) suggests that White and Hispanic adolescents (19.7 and 19.4%, respectively) are more inclined to consider suicide in comparison to Black adolescents (13.3%). In the case of homicides, juveniles also have many chances to be attacked to the point of death. More specifically, in accordance with the data presented in Figure 1 below the percentage of juveniles that were homicide victims was extremely high in 1994 while afterwards it was gradually declined reaching in 2002 a relatively low level. Figure 1 – Juvenile homicide victims, 1980-2002, USA (source: Statistical Briefing Book. 2007) To a more accurate explanation (in terms of data involved) of Figure 1 above, it is noticed in Statistical Briefing Book (2007) that ‘homicides of juveniles peaked in 1993 at 2,900; the number of juvenile homicide victims in 2002 was 44% below the 1993 peak, reaching its lowest level since 1984; juveniles represented about 10% of all murder victims in 2002; in 2002, 36% of murdered juveniles were female, 45% were black’. In accordance with the above data, race can be considered as a criterion when evaluating homicides and suicides in juveniles. As for the criterion of age, this is represented in Figure 2 below where it is made clear that in juveniles the number of victims both by suicide and by homicide presents a continuous growth until the age of 18. However, it should be noticed that the rate in the relevant increase is higher regarding suicides than homicides. In fact the difference between these two categories is high as it can be observed in Figure 2 below. However, it should be noticed that the data presented below refers to juveniles that are White and Non-Hispanic. This notion is of particular importance if Figure 2 is compared with Figure 3 in the next page. Figure 2 – Victims by age, White-Non Hispanic, 1990-2004, USA (source: Statistical Briefing Book. 2007) Figure 3 – Victims by age, Black -Non Hispanic 1990-2004, USA (source: Statistical Briefing Book. 2007) If referring to a different part of the population, the Black-Non Hispanic juveniles, we can conclude that rates of both suicide and homicides are extremely low for juveniles until the age of 12 (Figure 3 above). On the other hand, there is an ‘adverse’ condition regarding the criminal behaviour against White-Non Hispanic juveniles where suicide levels are extremely high and homicide levels are relatively low. On the contrary, in the case of Black-Non Hispanic Juveniles, suicide rates are extremely low but homicide rates are rather high with a trend of radical increase after the 16th year of age. In contrast, it has been proved that ‘mood disorders such as depression, dysthymia, and bipolar disorders are major risk factors for suicide among children and adolescents; stressful life events and low levels of communication with parents may also be significant risk factors’ (Child Trends Data Bank, November 2006) Figure 4 – Juvenile homicide victims, 1990-2004, USA (source: Statistical Briefing Book. 2007) It should also be illustrated that age is related with the level of suicides and homicides against juveniles. In accordance with the data presented in Figure 4 above for the Hispanic population, the rates of both crimes tend to be increasing gradually through the years reaching at the age of 18 an extremely high level. In any case, homicides are more than suicides. In fact the difference in the relevant rate is significant. Figure 5– Crime rates by race of victim (source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2007) The importance of race as a criterion for differentiation in the violent crime rates by victims of different races is also proved in Figure 5 above. In this graph it is clear that black people are more likely to be victims of violent crimes instead of white people. However, the above graph does not present a particular differentiation regarding juveniles and adults. It is just a race-differentiation issue that is mainly presented through the graph. In Figure 6 below the murder rate for juveniles is presented for the period 1980-2000. This graph also proves the assumption that black juveniles murder rate is the highest in comparison with Whites and other races. In the period of 1980-1993 murder rate of juveniles aged 12-17 increased 163% for black and 49% for whites. Figure 6 - Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004 Literature Review/Theory Suicide among juveniles has been extensively examined in the literature. The problem of suicide among youth is very acute for the U.S as it is ‘third leading cause of death among ten- to 19-year-olds in the United States’ (Anderson & Smith, 2003 in Judge & Billick, 2004, 681) In accordance with Reser ‘suicide is a classic, indeed the classic, socially constructed social problem’ (Reser, 2004, 40). Furthermore, it is illuminated by the above researcher that ‘suicide itself, and particularly youth and/or indigenous suicide, is a disturbing, confronting, compelling phenomenon, with powerful symbolic and injustice undercurrents, which immediately evoke sense-making and justice-seeking causal attribution search’ (Reser, 2004, 40). Moreover, it is made clear that suicide among juveniles can have different characteristics than suicide in adults. In the study of Huth-Bocks (2007) clinical population of suicidal youth, 82% of which were White adolescents of age 12-17, was researched. Out of 289 psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents 54% attempted suicide and 46% exhibited severe suicidal ideation. This research proves that suicide risk is correlated with depressive symptoms. It is aligned with other researches which also relate suicidal ideation or prior suicide attempts with depressive symptomatology. Alternatively, Vermeiren et al. (2002, 631) supported that ‘both depressive symptomatology and aggressive behaviour should be considered as important characteristics related to suicidal phenomena; the current findings on aggressive antisocial behaviour suggest that suicidal behaviour is not necessarily contingent on depressive symptomatology, and thus that adolescents can pose a suicide risk while not showing the "classic" warning signs (i.e., depression)’. Thus, depression cannot be an independent predictor of suicide. Youth aged 9 and 19 is highly subject to the risk of suffering from depressive disorders which is not always suggestive of completed suicide. Thus the high prevalence of depression among adolescents limits the possibility to prevent suicide. Instead it is viewed as a risk factor which in combination with other factors can suggest of adolescent suicide threats. The risk factors which precede suicide are a prior suicide attempt, mood or disruptive disorders, or substance abuse. In the study of Shaffer et al. (1996) of 120 suicide victims with mean age 16 years old living in ethnically diverse area, the findings show that 61% of suicide victims suffered from mood disorders, 50% disruptive disorders and 35% from substance abuse. In the similar study by Brent et al. (1999) the same psychopathologic risk factors are admitted to be significant in evaluation of suicide victims aged 13–19. The triggers of suicide among younger adolescents which are statistically significant are child-parent conflict, conflict or loss of romantic relationship, physical abuse, legal or disciplinary problems, and a firearm in the home. Thus psychosocial factors are the same significant as psychiatric disorders for determining of suicide risk in adolescents (Judge & Billick, 2004, 683). Suicidal risk is also associated with drug and alcohol abuse. Alcohol critically impacts ideators to make an actual suicide attempt according to the study of Gould, Shaffer, Fisher, and Garfinkel (1998). Substance abuse along with depression increases the likelihood of suicidal behaviour. It is due to the fact that alcohol impairs judgment and alters mood creating more psychological distress. (Ayyash-Abdo, 2002) Family is one more factor which may suggest of an adolescent being predisposed to commit suicide. A great number of researchers (Brent et al., 1988 Schweers, et al., 1994, Bridge, Brent, Johnson, & Connolly, 1997) highlight higher risk of suicide attempt among adolescents with family history of suicide. Parental psychopathology effects directly suicidal behavior among adolescents. (Ayyash-Abdo, 2002) Family functioning is important to predict suicidal behaviour. Parent-child relationships among suicide attempters and ideators are more disturbed and conflictual, family environment is poor and non-supportive. Family violence and ‘lower levels of maternal emotional responsiveness’ are usual predictors of suicide attempts (Fergusson & Lynskey, 1995 in Ayyash-Abdo, 2002). Relationship with peers is deemed very important in adolescent years. Problems with peers are one more precursor of suicidal ideation and behaviour. Isolation from peers, peer acceptance or rejection has direct impact on suicidal ideation. The study of Brunstein et.al. (2007) of bullying behaviour in schools proves that victims of bullying are more open to the risk for depression and suicide attempts. “Higher exposures to being victimized or bullying others generally were related to higher risk of depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts, yet infrequent involvement in bullying behavior also was related to increased risk of depression and suicidality, particularly among girls” (Brunstein et.al. 2007, 45). As the research of Penn et.al (2003) shows incarcerated White adolescents are more than others subject to suicidality risk. The results of the survey show that 12.4% of adolescents attempted suicide at least once during their lifespan before the detention. Psychosocial factors are also important determinants of suicide risks among youth. Socioeconomic disadvantage of the neighbourhood a child lives in influences adolescent mental health. Youth living in social disorder environment with different community pathologies like drug use, crime, vandalism, poor housing, often exhibit ‘psychological distress symptoms such as fear, powerlessness, and hopelessness.’ (Wickrama, Noh & Bryant, 2005) In the research of McLeod & Nonnemaker (2000) family and community poverty are reported to have greater adverse effect on mental health for whites than for blacks. Black youth turn to be more resilient to children’s behavioral problems which can be explained by greater emotional flexibility of black children (Korbin, 2001) or religious involvement and family support. In the study of Wickrama, Noh & Bryant (2005) there’s a view that black youth is more exposed to drug abuse in their neighbourhood and at an earlier age than white youth is. Black youth can get cocaine if they want to, they see people sell drugs and people drunk or high on drugs in their neighbourhood considerably more than white youth. However, black adolescents ‘exhibit greater resilience to emotional casualties of harmful community conditions despite their greater exposure to such noxious conditions.’ (Wickrama, Noh & Bryant, 2005, 270) Thus high suicide rates among whites can be explained by their emotional instability in comparison to black youth. The highest suicide rates of American Indians are likely to refer to poor living conditions of these adolescents. The suicide is more feasible to be explained as of its causes. On the contrary, the reasons for homicide by the victim’s side are not available for analysis (in fact there could be no justification for this crime either against adults or juveniles). However, we’ll view the problem from another vantage point. The rise in adolescent homicide rates has some reasons behind it. We’ll study what causes the high rates of homicide among youth to work out measures to prevent youth violence in the future. It’s true that youth homicide has become a serious problem. When juvenile homicide rates rose dramatically in early 1990s and school-based violence was reported with increasing frequency, there appeared a bulk of research on juvenile homicide which sought for the reasons behind this phenomenon. Researchers used to explain juvenile homicide first by ‘concentrated disadvantage and open-air drug markets.’ Socioeconomic disadvantage was reported not only to generate frustration but undermine community social control. (Bartkowski and Lee, 2004, 1002) The National Science Foundation study in 1995 revealed that the United States was a leading nation among 17 industrialized nations to have the highest rate of child poverty. The relation of socioeconomic conditions with juvenile homicide rate can be illustrated by the fact that in the period between 1995 and 1997 the rate of homicide among adolescents was falling, when the adolescent unemployment rate fell by 10 percent. (Schiraldi, 1999, 19) The improvements in the financial picture of Americas teenagers over last year negatively marked on the juvenile homicide rates. On the contrary, poor living conditions and no perspective ahead for young people is the way to downward illegal activity which increases the risk of violent death in early age. Bad neighborhoods and community disorganization are precursors of youth violence. Adolescents living in communities with high rates of crime, drug sales, gangs, and poor housing are more exposed to a greater variety of violent acts in adolescence. (Borum, 2000) The increasing use of crack cocaine marked the burst in juvenile homicide rates. Goldstein (1985 in Bartkowski and Lee, 2004, 1010) introduces the systemic violence model which serves to explain the relation between homicide and drug distribution. In the world of illegal drug markets competition disputes are resolved with violence as a means of regulation. Young people engaged in drug markets have no or ‘few ties to conventional institutions of social mobility and social control’ but have ‘ready access to handguns.’ A great number of other research literature like Baumer et al. 1998; Cork 1999; Ousey & Lee 2002 support the systemic model. (Bartkowski and Lee, 2004, 1012) One more reasons which is referred to when talking of high homicide rates among juveniles is availability of guns in the home. Many teens have access to loaded handgun which increases the risk of homicide as well as suicide. According to the data of Justice Department only 35 percent of Americas high school students have difficulty to obtain a gun. Homicides committed without guns have much lower proportion than those which involve shooting. Unprecedented access to guns is reported to be one of the main reasons in a great number of studies. (Schiraldi, 1999, 19) The statistics of the Department of Justice presented in the Figures 7 and 8 below is the proof that easy access to firearms is to be blamed for high juvenile homicide rates. The increase in homicides by juveniles in the late 1980s was explained by crimes committed with handguns; the choice of weapon didn’t change by the end of 1990s. (Cohn, 1999) Figure 7 - Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004 Figure 8 - Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004 Again low-income African-American inner-city youths are the most likely victims of gun violence unlike their upper-middle-class peers. (Salloum, Avery & Mcclain, 2001). In a sample of 221 low-income, African-American youths aged 7-18 more than 70% reported to be a victim of at least one violent act, 85% were witnesses of at least one violent incident, with a murders being witnessed by 43% respondents. (Fitzpatick and Boldizar, 1993 in Salloum, Avery & Mcclain, 2001). Figure 9 - Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004 The data of the U.S Department of Justice presented in Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004 (Figure 9) illustrate the prevalence of the black males and females being murdered with firearms. Discussion/ Conclusion In accordance with the data presented above, homicide and suicide rates can be differentiated among juveniles of different race. On the other hand, it could be supported that the causes of criminal behaviour against juveniles are not possible to be precisely explored. Principally, because it is an issue closely related with the cultural and social trends of each particular society and the personal attitude of the perpetrator. However, we review socioeconomic factors to see how they attribute to homicide rates among juveniles. The research of literature suggests that youngsters, who live in disorganized communities with poor living conditions, are more likely to become homicide victims. As numerous studies show, disadvantaged community and low income households are likely to reflect on behavioural and mental health outcomes such as delinquency, aggression, violence, psychological disturbances, etc. Racial differences are also accounted for. The victims of unsafe living conditions are the most vulnerable society members - children. As for the issue of suicide behaviour, it could be stated that the motives for suicide in juveniles can be common with no differentiation regarding the age. However, the percentages of suicide are different among White and Black juveniles, with the White juveniles presenting high rates of suicide while Black juveniles present higher percentages regarding homicides. In this context, the statement analyzed through this paper could be regarded as justified. In fact, white and black juveniles present significant differentiations in the rates of homicides and suicides and this issue could be explained because of their difference in race. Black adolescents seem to be more resilient to negative factors of the community while White young people are more likely to develop behavioural disturbances. This can partly explain the data of high rate suicides among White adolescents. Black adolescents are more exposed to poor living conditions and adverse community environment. Though they exhibit greater emotional resilience to the negative factors of their community, they are likely to be homicide victims due to these very factors. According to the American Association of Suicidology 80% of suicide attempters and completers exhibited warning signs. That means that suicides can be and should be prevented. The risk factors discussed earlier in this paper should be taken into account to assess possibility of suicide. Besides, warning signs (like eating or sleeping troubles, behavior changes, losing interests in favorite activities or prized possessions, etc) signal of the possible suicide threat. Parameters for risk assessment of a suicidal youth have been worked out by Pfeffer (1996 in Judge and Billick, 2004) and include predictability of the youngster, circumstances of suicidal behavior, intent to die, psychopathology, coping mechanisms, communication environmental stress. If a youngster have troubles in at least three of these aspects, the suicide threat should be considered. Fighting with homicide accidents is far more complicated and a set of socioeconomic measures should be taken to create conditions for safe environment which is not so easy to do. As the research shows the improvements in economic situation of the country mirror the decrease of crime rates, particularly the juvenile homicides. Since violence rates are linked to economic trends, poor minority youth is most at risk which statistics review proves. Black adolescents suffer the greatest from violence. While homicide is the second leading cause of death for youths, it is the first leading cause of death for black male youths with rate of juvenile victims being 71%. (http://social.jrank.org/pages/676/Violence.html) Youth violence and violence against youth are two closely interconnected problems which should be addressed at the national and local level. Prevention programs to promote prosocial behavior should involve everybody from teachers and family to peers. Creating moral communities is important to prevent youth homicide and suicide accidents. In the study of Bartkowski and Lee (2004) which researches juvenile homicide rates in relation to moral communities and civic engagement, the authors suggests that ‘faith-based forms of civic engagement may be particularly effective for retarding juvenile family violence.’ (1008) As a high rate of juvenile victims is due to the use of firearms, the government regulations concerning the access to weapons are required. 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