Child Physical Performance Participation in Physical Activity - Essay Example

Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Participation in Physical Activity of the of the Participation in Physical Activity Introduction Establishing patterns of physical activity during childhood and adolescence is important for immediate gains in health and well-being and to develop positive behaviors that can be deployed throughout the life course. Physical activity controls physical and psychosocial health and is significant at all stages in the life cycle. Impact of age and pattern of involvement are examined and barriers to participation are identified in this study. There is a need to make suggestions in order to increase participation and maximize the beneficial effects for all segments of the population. Physical activity habits and preferences are not static but are continually in a state of flux throughout the life cycle. The most substantial changes occur at major passages in peoples lives and these activities are added and deleted as personal and situational factors change over time. There is an inverse relationship between age and physical activity levels. Physical activity patterns peak in childhood, but an incipient decline continues through the life cycle. Relatively active adolescents become increasingly inactive adults. Situational factors specific to adolescence, such as beginning to drive, beginning part-time employment, and disengaging from competitive sports, may be contributory factors to a less vigorous lifestyle. The high attrition rate in organized sports may be partially due to the confluence of averslye or negative experiences. The work-like approach to sports may result in a spillover effect in which not only the sport but all physical activity is perceived negatively. As athletes are pressured to succeed and spend long hours in repetitive, almost assembly-line type practices, they may be inhibited from developing a positive attitude toward physical activities. Blair (2004, 585) noted that with increasing age, there was an increasing professionalization of attitude toward play. Consequently, as childrens activities evolve from free play to more organized contexts, there is a corresponding transition from an expressive orientation to a more instrumental one. This transition results in an increasing emphasis on winning and defeating an opponent and a decreasing emphasis on playing fair and having fun. This transformation of attitude is most pervasive and pronounced with young men, although young women may be expected to exhibit a similar trend or transition as sporting opportunities continue to unfold. It is thus plausible that the spillover effect and the progressive professionalism of play coupled with the increased responsibilities of independence may be partially responsible for diminished involvement in physical activities. Physical Activities in Childhood and Adolescent The young child is first exposed to physical activities of a playful and unstructured nature. As the developing child begins school and joins voluntary sports programs, there is a marked transition from child-centered, less organized activity to adult-directed, highly organized sports. Childrens involvement in highly regulated and regimented competitive sports is an integral part of European culture and has been labeled as a rite of childhood (McPherson, 1988, 270). Although childrens sports seem to have a long and successful history, their development has been rooted in controversy. Proponents of childrens sports have argued that athletic competition positively affects psychological development by instilling such attributes as enhanced emotional control, increased self-confidence, good sportsmanship, personality development, and increased motivation. Conversely, critics have suggested that highly organized sports participation may be detrimental to childrens psychosocial development as a result of excessive emotional stress and the development of undesirable attitudes and behaviors. Although the mass participation in youth sport seems to be prima facie appealing, the alarmingly high attrition rates raise serious concerns. The fact that such a large number withdraw before their fledgling skills or fitness are enhanced may have long-term ramifications for their attitudes toward and participation in physical activities throughout the lifespan. Although the motives for childrens participation are multidimensional, the pattern is remarkably consistent. Motives of an intrinsic nature such as having fun, improving skills, testing ones skills, and accomplishing personal goals were cited as the dominant motives by Weiss (2003, 40). Given the fact that youth sport participation is inherently intrinsically motivated, adults may unwittingly do much to supplant or subvert the intrinsic drive. Children need parental guidance and encouragement for participation in a variety of activities, but herein lies the problem. Because intrinsically motivated behaviors are synonymous with playful activities, children are most at play when their behavior is largely under their control and not externally rewarded or sanctioned. The over-justification hypothesis has demonstrated that adult intervention in the form of extrinsic rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation and consequently turn play into work. Two necessary conditions have been suggested to maintain the intrinsic motivation drive--namely, perceived control and perceived competence. When a person freely chooses to participate in an activity, he or she then expects to experience feelings of mastery or competence. Baker (2007, 303) stressed that a sense of competence or mastery is crucial to an individuals self-esteem and regarded the striving for competence as a universal motive. To enhance self-efficacy, children should be counseled and channeled into those activities that repeatedly and progressively lead to authentic mastery experiences and personal accomplishments. The resultant increased physical self-efficacy improves ones psychological well-being and increases the capacity to cope with aversive experiences and to encounter more challenging endeavors. Generally the life course in contemporary society may be fractionated into three biosocial periods: preparation, establishment, and culmination (Gabbard, 2000). In the adult or the establishment stage, it is hoped that there is a positive carryover effect from the activities of an earlier stage of life. Attitudes, habits, and perceptions are critical prerequisites for persistent participation in physical activities. From a large number of cross-sectional studies in a number of countries that there seems to be a universal pattern of declining involvement with age, although the pattern is more pronounced in some subgroups.. A number of possible explanations have been proffered: inadequate early socialization, lack of or restricted opportunity, nonnative beliefs, lack of role models, ageism, sexism, racism, disengagement theory, and myths that physical activity is unnecessary and maybe even harmful. Because the data on the cardiovascular benefits of physical activity are much stronger than those for any of the other health benefits, it seems that the rates of mortality and morbidity could be more substantially reduced by changing physical activity habits than by changing any other risk factor (Sallis & McKenzie, 2001, 124). Also, the greatest benefit seems to be gained when changing from sedentary to moderate levels of activity, and a diminishing effect occurs when moving from moderate to more vigorous levels of physical activity. Accumulating evidence indicates that moderate-intensity physical activities produce the same health protective effects as more vigorous activities. In addition, there is greater compliance with and fewer barriers to participation in moderate physical activities. Although data from nationally representative samples are highly variable, it seems that a sizable portion of the population in industrialized countries is sedentary and unfit. Modem technology continues to reduce energy expenditure in both industry and the home, thereby creating a need for more physical activities. Although physical inactivity seems to be less problematic in developing countries, passivity will accelerate and exacerbate with increasing automatization, mechanization, and urbanization. Therefore, increased participation in regular physical activities may well represent the most effective preventive medicine measure adopted by developed and developing countries. Physical Activity Awareness The public needs to be educated about the potential hazards of the passivity of technological pastimes and counseled to adopt more active pursuits that will enhance both their physical and psychological well-being. Haywood (1991, 151) stressed that physical educators and elementary school counselors have not adequately explored or exploited their roles in the development of active lifestyles in the elementary school curriculum. She noted that "we must remind ourselves that children are in no way physically, mentally or socially scaled-down adults. Children need age-appropriate activities. Just as we do not give kindergartners Shakespeare to read, we should not impose adult sports and adult exercise programs on them" (p. 155). Although physical education programs have the potential to fulfill many roles, perhaps their most important function is to inculcate behaviors and attitudes conducive to lifelong participation in physical or vigorous activities. Evidence suggests that the level of participation, the degree of skill, and the number of activities mastered as a child directly influences the extent to which the child will continue to participate in physical activities as an adult. Children who are inactive during childhood tend to be inactive as adults. Pangrazi (2004) stressed that a developmentally appropriate and well-organized elementary school program will maximize the approach tendencies and minimize the avoidance tendencies and ultimately form the basis for continuous participation in physical pursuits throughout the life cycle. Haywood noted that the dislike of physical activities by some children stemmed from poor pedagogical techniques rather than the activity or the sport per se. Physical activities are endured rather than enjoyed. The extent to which peers, parents, and teachers influenced involvement in physical activity reflects social-environmental barriers. If teachers spend a disproportionate amount of time in game play without having progressively developed the requisite skills, then the skill development and sense of competence of many students are delayed as the more motorically mature students monopolize the activity. Novice players have not sufficiently mastered the skills and this inevitably leads to a lack of reinforcement and the presence of frustration, which ultimately induces negative feelings and avoidance tendencies (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2004, 2). The perception emerges that physical education caters to the good athletes while the lesser skilled lag further and further behind their peers. Teachers, peers and parents are always striving and searching for techniques that will effectively and efficiently enhance the performance of their students. Equipment modification may be a feasible instructional technique to enhance skill acquisition and to foster a sense of competence. Improvements in performance will help break the proficiency barrier, increase the approach tendencies, and enhance the childrens self-esteem. One of the most modifiable and manageable aspects of the sports environment is the interaction between peers and players. The detrimental effects of negativistic and coercive styles of coaching are well-documented (Kirschenbaum, 1997, 110). When coaches berate players consistently with punitive and excessively critical feedback, their performance, their attitude toward the sport, and their self-esteem decline. Eventually some will drop out and develop aversions to further physical pursuits. To change or counteract negativistic coaching and other problematic aspects of the coach-player relationship, sports psychologists have developed a system termed behavioral coaching (Kirschenbaum, 1997, 112). Behavioral coaching focuses on more task-specific, individual, constructive, and positive feedback. The more frequent use of highly specific, unemotional feedback facilitates accurate self-evaluation and encourages the development of positive expectancies and the avoidance of negative ones. Although an initial positive experience in organized sport is a good start, it may not be an ironclad guarantee of success over the long term; but at least it will not be an inhibitor or an impediment to later participation in physical activities. Socialization in to Physical Activities Childhood determination, a common model of socialization, posits that physical activity habits are learned from parents, peers, coaches, and educational programs early in the life cycle (Payne & Isaacs, 2002). Those who adhere to this model claim that through the socialization process, individuals develop habits and preferences that become an important part of their lifestyle. This perspective is reflective of radical behaviorism, which claims that conditioning in the formative years is determined by adults and determines behavior for the lifespan of the individual. Therefore, it is claimed that there is a marked relationship between the level of participation in physical activities as a child and later as an adult. Parents and peers are regarded as important role models and potent sources of reinforcement of physical activities in the young. This view has been expanded to include seasonal and situational factors that are continuous over the life cycle. Factors such as spouse, sibling, and employer support and level of friendship with other participants were found to be critical determinants for participation in physical activities (Wankel, 1995, 276). However, this model of unidirectional socialization, with the child in the role of learner, has been challenged as contrary to the symbolic interactionist perspective that views social interaction as reciprocal. A bi-directional pathway and mutual effect between children and parents. Ritzer, Kammeyer, and Yetman (1999) coined the term reverse socialization to refer to the ways in which younger people often exert an influence on their elders. Parents who socialized their offspring into sports were also influenced by their childrens participation via a changed lifestyle and a renewed physical and psychological commitment to their childrens involvement in activities. Thus, a reverse and reciprocal model of socialization would seem to be a more precise and plausible explanation for initiation and involvement in physical activities. Aging and Physical Activity Although the physical and psychological benefits of older adults participation in physical activities have been extensively documented (Shephard, 1995, 300), there is evidence that with increasing age, adults gradually disengage from physical activities (Baker, 2007, 305). Obviously, there is an inherently biological tendency toward becoming less physically active with advancing years. Social, physical, psychological, and economic factors contribute to the sedentary lifestyles adults traditionally adopt. Gallahue (1998) noted that due to the pervasiveness of ageism in society, older people are often the victims of sociogenically induced misconceptions about their physical and cognitive abilities. They contended that these misconceptions lead to ineffective, dependent older individuals who avoid behaviors that they erroneously perceive as beyond their capacities. Physical activity participation is subject to age grading and that the norms, values, and sanctions vary from one age group to other. If throughout the lifespan, sports and physical activities are increasingly devalued and de-emphasized, there is a rational explanation for the decline. The aged become captive to and curtailed by the self-fulfilling prophesy. Individuals self-presentational concerns were likely to impact their preferences and participation in physical activities. People are unlikely to devote themselves to activities that convey impressions that are inconsistent with their perceived roles. Physical and mental performance declines were once considered to be a normal and necessary consequence of aging. However, recent studies suggested that declines may relate more to life-long physical activity patterns than age per se. It has been noticed that older people with more active lifestyles had superior mental and motor functions than their less active cohorts. In the physical realm, Payne & Isaacs (2002) noted that increased physical activity levels may preserve a sufficient margin of function to adequately undertake the activities of daily living, thus maintaining independence and avoiding or delaying institutionalization. Older peoples physical, emotional, and cognitive functioning could be enhanced if the negative feelings regarding their personal efficacy and competence were modified through intervention such as physical activities that foster mastery experiences. These experiences would do much to counteract the negative stereotypes that often depict older adults as inefficient and dependent individuals. Physical activity may not add years to life but life to years. It may be an effective intervention to retard or reverse some of the age related declines in mental and motor function. Conclusion Positive experiences in physical activities will facilitate the cultivation of a state of learned effectiveness whereas negative experiences will inevitably lead to a state of learned helplessness. Children are sometimes regarded as miniature adults in sports and physical education. They are expected to perform the same skills and the same drills, play by the same rules, and use the same equipment as adults. Gallahue (1998) stressed that greater participatory rate for all children could be obtained by adapting games, such as organizing many small group games rather than one large game. Teachers should avoid elimination type games, because those that need the activity the most are usually the first to be eliminated. Practices such as having students select teams should be abandoned because it is a fertile procedure for the self-fulfilling prophesy. Teachers, coaches, and peers should be sensitive to the perceived or potential barriers to participation and strive to alleviate them. The physical and psychological benefits of physical activity have been well documented; however, participatory rates are far from optimal. Making participation enjoyable by enhancing competence, self-efficacy, and flow seems to be an essential element for continued participation. The challenge for those charged with providing and organizing activities is to structure the environment to maximize the positive affects. References Baker, J., Horton, S. Pearce, W., & Deakin, J. (2007). Maintenance of skilled performance with age: A descriptive examination of professional golfers. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 15, 300-317. Blair, S. N. (2004). Physical activity, fitness and coronary heart disease. In C. Bouchard, R. J. Shephard, and T. 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NSW Department of Education and Training, ‘NSW schools physical activity and nutrition survey’, Curriculum Support Directorate, vol .9, no. 4, 2004, pp. 1–4. Pangrazi, R. P. Dynamic Physical Education for Elementary School Physical Education, 14th edition. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2004. Payne & Isaacs (2002). Human motor development: A life span approach, 5th Edition. McGraw Hill. Ritzer, G., Karomeyer, K., & Yetman, N. (1999). Sociology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Sallis, J. F., & McKenzie, T. L. (1991). Physical educations role in public health. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 124-137. Shephard, R. J. (1995). Physical activity, health, and well-being at different life stages. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66, 298-302. Wankel, L. (1995). Personal and situational factors affecting exercise involvement: The importance of enjoyment. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 56, 275-282. Weiss, M. R. (2003). Psychological effects of intensive sport participation on children and youth: Self-esteem and motivation. In B. R. Cahiil and A. J. Pearl (Eds.), Intensive participation in childrens sport (pp. 39-69). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Read More