Japanese and Chinese Buddhist Nuns - Essay Example

Buddhist Nuns of Eastern Asia The position of women in Buddhism is both unique and special. It was the Buddha who first gave women the opportunity toparticipate in full in religious life. Women were first given religious freedom by the Buddha himself. Before this opportunity, women were tied to traditional roles of child bearing, tending to the husband, children and household. Women were held in low esteem compared to men. The Buddha himself received criticism for giving this religious freedom to women. It was unthinkable at the time to allow women into holy orders, but the Buddha gave females the opportunity to prove that they had the capacity to attain the highest levels of religious prominence just like men. Brief history of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan Buddhism took root in China in the 1st century A.D. It came from India through central Asia, and scriptures were later translated into Chinese. They also became monks, following the example of those who came from central Asia. More men and women became monks and nuns as the years passed and the Chien Kang Era (313-316 A.D.) records in the Biographies of Buddhist Nuns how twenty four women led by Ching Chen converted to nuns as they received the tonsure and took the ten precepts from the master Chih Shan who came from central Asia. These nuns then built the Bamboo Forest Temple where they practiced the Dharma. It was in the fifth century that the first woman, Hui-kuo, became the first bhiksuni by taking upasampada or the taking of full ordination. Buddhism in Korea first travelled from China to the Kingdom of Koryo, and later made its way to the kingdoms of Paekshe and Silla. Evidence show that the first full ordination of Korean nuns happened soon after the full after the ordination of Hui-kuo and her nuns. Buddhism was introduced into Japan in the 6th century A.D. King Sheng Ming of the kingdom of Paekshe presented Emperor Kin-myo with several Buddhist religious figures in 538 A.D. However, Korean migrants to Japan have already introduced the religion on an earlier date and it had been practiced privately. The Chinese also contributed to the growth of Japanese Buddhism on a later date when the main doctrines were directly handed over during the Nara Dynasty (710-781 A.D.). Women in early Buddhist myth and reality As orders of bhikunis were founded, large numbers of prominent women came to join them. These women were attracted by the teachings of the Buddha and the empowerment it gives them. Among the celebrated women who became nuns are: Prajapati Gotami who became the first bhikuni; Uppalayanna and Khema who were considered as the "foremost of the bhikunis"; and Kisagotami and Patacara who were prominent in many stories about early Buddhism. Prajapati Gotami who is considered as the first bhikuni, was the second queen of Prince Siddharta's father. When Queen Maha Maya who was the prince's mother died seven days after giving birth to Siddhartha, Prajapati Gotami gave up her son who was born the same day the queen died, and took Prince Siddhartha as her own. She loved him so much that the prince could not remember his own mother. The bhikunis or Buddhist nuns began with Prajapati who was given special permission by the Buddha himself, ending and exclusively male monastic assembly. The daughter of a rich man, Kisagotami was married and had a son. The boy died and Kisagotami carried the dead body around asking everyone for medicine that would restore the child's life. People thought that her grief had made her mad. However, a wise man thought otherwise and decided to help her. He told her to approach the Buddha and ask for the medicine that would bring her son back to life. The Buddha instructed her to get some mustard seeds from a house where there had been no death. Still carrying her dead child, Kisagotami went from house to house asking for mustard seeds. People wanted to help her but she could not find a house where there had been no death. She realized that hers was not the only family who had deaths, and that there were more dead than living people. This changed her attitude towards her dead son and she no longer became attached to it. She left the dead boy's body in the jungle and went back to Buddha who told her, "Gotami, you thought that you were the only one who had lost a son. As you have now realized, death comes to all beings; before their desires are satiated death takes them away." Kisagotami became enlightened and attained Sotapatti Fruition. She later became a bhikuni and as she observed the flaring and dying out of the flames of lamps, she became aware of the arising and perishing of beings. The Buddha then appeared to her and instructed her to continue meditating on the impermanence of being and strive to realize Nirvana. Patacara was the daughter of a rich banker. She fell in love with a servant and ran away with him as her parents made arrangements for her marriage to someone of her rank. As she was about to give birth to her first child, she asked to go and visit her parents but her husband made many reasons so she could not. This time, Patacara left a message to her husband as she proceeded to visit her family. Her husband followed her. She had her child along the way. Finding her, the husband returned them home. The same thing happened with her second child, but along the way a storm broke. Her husband found her again and began to bring her back home. However, a storm broke and her husband had to go and find sticks and leaves to make a shelter. He was bitten by s snake and died. Patacara later found her husband's body and grief-stricken, proceeded to her parents' house. She had to cross a swollen river and in doing so had to leave the younger child on the river bank while she crossed with the older one. As she looked back, she saw a hawk swoop down and carry off her baby. Startled, she dropped the child she was carrying and it was swept away by the flood. Having lost her husband and children, she then proceeded to her parents' house only to find out when she arrived that the house had fallen and killed her parents and brother. Mad with grief, she wandered until she came to a town where Buddha was preaching. The crowd tried to keep her from getting near to him, but he summoned her. His gentleness brought back her sanity. His words made her realize the inevitability of death and she later asked for ordination as a nun and became a sotappana. Ayya Khema was a Jewish refugee who along with her parents escaped from Berlin in 1938. She later went to China then immigrated to the United States. Her travels to the Himalayas introduced her to meditation and she eventually became a Buddhist nun in Sri Lanka. She later founded the Wat Buddha Damma which is a monastery in the Theravada region, in Sydney, Australia. The International Women's Buddhist Center in Colombo became a training venue for Buddhist nuns, while the Parappuduwa Nuns' Island was established by her for women who want to practice intensively or study to become nuns. She also became the spiritual director of Buddha-Haus in Germany, also supervising its establishment. It was in 1987 when she coordinated the first international conference of Buddhist nuns. The Dalai Lama was the keynote speaker of this conference. She also became the first Buddhist to address the United Nations in New York. Challenges encountered by Buddhist nuns There are differences in the reasons or motives behind the involvement of men and women in monasticism. Men in medieval Soto Zen Buddhism became patrons and established temples primarily to further their economic and political interests. In contrast, women became temple patrons to reinforce their roles as wives, daughters, sisters or mothers. However, the predominantly patriarchal ecclesiastical system of Soto Zen brought about discrimination against nuns. Soto Zen nuns could not become Zen master or Zen teachers. They are not allowed to ordain their own female disciples and they were not allowed to live within temple compounds even with the absence of monks. Buddhist nuns were also restricted from performing important religious ceremonies such as funerals which also deprived them of an important source of income. All nuns also had to wear the black robes of a novice. They were placed at the bottom of the social hierarchy that they were often ignored or went unnoticed by the historians of the Tokugawa period. In the past, nuns were not allowed to walk without supervision during the day. They were also not allowed to chastise a monk. They also had to give in to a monk if there is any disagreement. Buddhist nuns had to be ordained by a nun and a monk, while monks only need ordination from a fellow monk. Women could not be ordained until a release from her male guardian is obtained. Contributions of nuns However, it should be noted that Buddhist nuns of the Soto Zen sect have contributed much to the popularity of Buddhism in medieval Japan. Women were responsible for the establishment of numerous Zen temples. Some documents suggest that Soto Zen was so attractive among women in medieval Japan that they almost equalled if not exceeded the number of monks during the period (Bodiford 2003). Women have figured prominently in various acts of courage and emulation throughout the history of Zen Buddhism. Their deeds have been celebrated during the sixth century, since the days of the first ordained Buddhists, to the innovative years of contemporary times. As an example, Soto Zen nuns have directed themselves accordingly based on the traditions set by Dogen (1200 - 1253) who was the recognized founder of Soto Zen Buddhism. This was despite the fact that the sect's administration was dominated by men. Chiyono or Mugai Nyodai (1223-1298) was a pupil of the Zen master Wu-hsueh Tsu-yuan (1226-1228) who founded the Engakuji temple when he arrived in Japan from China. Chiyono longed for enlightenment but the more she tried the farther she seemed from it. However, when she was carrying an old bucket filled with water from a well one night, she noticed the moon's reflection on the pail. As she continued walking, the strip of bamboo which held the bucket together broke. The old bucket fell apart and the water spilled onto the ground, and the moon's reflection promptly disappeared. It was then that Chiyono realized that the moon on the pail was just the reflection of the real thing. That reflection was similar to what her life was, With hr moonlight-inspired realization and enlightenment, she became a Zen master. With hr moonlight-inspired realization and enlightenment, she became a Zen master. She later wrote: "This way and that way I tried to keep the pail of water together, hoping the weak bamboos would never break But suddenly the bottom fell out: no more water no more moon in the water and emptiness in my hand!" Nuns' empowerment through rituals Buddhist nuns have found venues to express their political and emotional concerns through ceremonial ritual. Among these rituals, the Anan Koshiki which is exclusively performed by nuns gives them empowerment and legitimises their existence. Curiously, this ritual is not included in the Zoku Sotoshu Zensho, a manuscript that is supposed to contain all the major texts, rituals and regulations of the Soto Zen sect. Anan Koshiki is one of the rituals which compose the ritual genre called koshiki. The genre intends to show praise and gratitude to the Buddhist religious figures. Its main objective is to show gratitude to these figures as one practices the religion. The resolute stance of Buddhist nun and the corresponding reforms which were instituted in the 1960s can be attributed to the revival of the Anan Koshiki which gave them empowerment and inspiration. The ritual affirms that women can reach levels of enlightenment. It also affirms the belief and attitude that a male-dominated environment, although substantial in the difficulties and restrictions it poses upon women, can always be surmounted. The practice of Koshiki serves as a reminder to women that they belong to a long line, in fact 2,500 years old, of women who have followed the way of the Buddha. It also teaches people in general, both common individuals and those who have chosen monastic lives, about what the teachings of Buddha truly are. Since Koshiki is a communal ritual, it also reiterates the true power of Zen Buddhism which is found in the community and not in individuals. Why women become Buddhist nuns There are various motivations why women choose to become Buddhist nuns. The popularity of the Zhaijao religion in Taiwan provided them with an escape from the rigidity of the Chinese patriarchal family. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, women in Kwangtung province could be exempt from marriage by taking up zhaijao vows (Topley 1975). Now that family structures and traditions are less rigid in Taiwan, less women enter monastic life for religious reasons (Jordan 1994). This had a diversifying effect on Buddhism in the country, which became more inclined towards social welfare. Taiwanese Buddhism also began to interact more closely with Buddhist traditions and religions from other countries (Wang 1995). Another reason why women enter monastic life is because of the education it affords them. When Wu-Yin, the abbess of Luminary Temple had been ordained twelve years and was working on a field, she noticed Catholic nuns from a nearby school relaxing while she was labouring in the fields. She wondered why Buddhist nuns had to do manual labour while Catholic nuns could avail themselves of education. She began educating herself and managed to get through high school and university (Jianye 1999). Polish and Catholic by tradition, Ani Tsedron had herself ordained as a Buddhist nun because of the strong desire to help others. She felt that only through the practice of beliefs with others who follow Buddha's teachings can good come out of each human effort. "Although we have this precious human rebirth, it is only precious if we use it in a beneficial way. To make the most of these opportunities, we have to listen to the teachings and practice. Being ordained gives me the time to practice, study and live in a community with other practitioners. It is through the kindness of the teacher and all the great masters that we are able to listen to these precious teachings and practice them" (Chodron 2000). There have been several changes in how society perceives Buddhist nuns in China. Liberal social attitudes and changes in the economy and lifestyle have brought about both internal transformations within monastic life and societal elements. One of the major changes in perception is that contemporary nuns are young and active, contrary to them being seen as aging, unwanted and considered as failures. Society's perceptions about Buddhist nuns In Han society, those who chose monastic life were perceived as old women or unattractive girls. They may also be suspected as having failed in love or marriage. It was assumed that only women and girls with such predicaments would join monasteries. A 1971 report by the Taiwan Daily observed that when meeting with Dharma master Lin, "who refused to disclose her real name. How surprising the encounter was! She is so young and elegant. There is a pair of near-sighted glasses on her straight nose that makes her look like a scholar." The entry of a young and brilliant student of Chinese literature into monastic life despite the protests of her teachers and father confused people when she came back to school with her head shaved, although she was pretty, young, and did not have any problem related to love or relationships. Contemporary characteristics of new nuns who are young and beautiful are fast reshaping the way people see them. The social mainstream believes that young and beautiful girls should not enter monastic life. However, this mainstream attitude is challenged by those who become Buddhist nuns despite their youth and beauty. They have showed that their becoming nuns was a matter of personal choice and was not borne out of any circumstance or misfortune that befell them. By making such personal decision, they exhibited strength and responsibility, and such negates the common notion that they are failures who wish to escape responsibility or tasks, or situations which they cannot control. Buddhist nuns are also thought to reject the world and are pessimistic about its prospects. This is wrong since many nuns have in fact engaged in social work to better the lives of others. Contrary to popular conception, Buddhist nuns have become proactive elements in contemporary society. Their involvement in alleviating pain and suffering, and bettering the human condition is drawn and consistent with Buddha's teachings. The escapist image of many centuries has been replaced by the real life involvement of Buddhist nuns in secular affairs. Women have now entered a new and more enlightened age wherein their contributions as Buddhist nuns are appreciated. Stereotypes still remain but the perceptions and attitudes of mainstream society are gradually changing. And these changes are also attributed mainly to the efforts that the Buddhist nuns have undertaken themselves. Following the teachings of the Buddha, they have become instrumental in making this world a better place for nuns and laymen alike. Monastic life of monks and nuns In general, the Buddhist monastic order is composed of two assemblies: the male bhikku assembly and the female bhikuni assembly. They are primarily expected to preserve the doctrine which is Buddhism. Both monks and nuns are expected to live austere lives. They should also serve as examples for the laity and be as a "field of merit" for lay followers. They provide the opportunity for laymen to earn merit by giving support to the monks and nuns. In return for the support given them by the laity, monks and nuns must devote themselves to the study of Buddhist teachings, meditation and the observance of good moral character. A bhikku or monk ordains as a Samanera or novice for a year or more. They are ordained as novices as early as eight years old. They observe the ten precepts but are not required to live the full set of monastic rules. They are ordained as a full bhikku when they reach 20 years of age. Nuns also follow the same progression but spend a longer period of five years as Samaneras. The discipline followed by monks and nuns are intended for achieving a simple and focused way of life, rather than an ascetic and deprived existence. The life of a monk or nun is defined by celibacy which distinguishes them from the laity or "householder". Food are either directly donated by lay supporters, or are prepared by a monastery kitchen which acquires provisions from lay supporters. Monastics usually eat only once a day. Buddhist monks and nuns are not required to observe obedience to a superior. However, they re expected to respect the older members of the monastic assembly. Seniority is determined by the number of rains retreats or vassa that a monastic has ordained. This is observed since the Buddha did not appoint a successor and did not stipulate rules mandating obedience in the monastic code. There are no formal positions or authority to give commands. There may be relationships such as teacher and student, senior and junior, but there are no authority figures in both monk and nun assemblies. In China, Korea and many parts of Japan, monks and nuns do not usually engage in begging. This is because of the geography, climate and local attitudes of the population in these countries. Generally, Buddhists do not engage in asking for alms if the lay society does not approve of it. Thus, they live in greater isolation from the lay population. Food donations are received in bulk and funds to purchase food. A layman or a monk may be specially designated to manage the kitchen and monastery properties. Buddhist nuns perform the Bhikshuni Posadha, the bi-monthly purification of nuns and restoration of vows. The Buddha instructed that the Bhikshuni sangha perform this purification rite in the full moon and new moon days. It is done every month with the presence of at least five fully ordained nuns. China, Taiwan, Korea and Vietnam nuns continue to perform this purification ritual according to the instruction of the Buddha. Japanese monks and nuns usually marry after receiving their higher ordination. This came to being when the Meiji Restoration passed an edict requiring monks to seek wives. Japan is the only country where those from religious orders are married. There are also some Korean orders which permit marriage among its monastics. Buddhist monks and nuns have expanded their roles since the time of Buddha. Aside from practitioners and teachers of Buddhist doctrines, they have become at times educators, artists, social workers, scholars, physicians, and even rulers. However despite these expanded, sometimes even incongruous roles, there have always been monks who have lived simple lives, meditating, teaching and gently influencing the communities around them. References: Arai, Paula. 1990. Soto Zen Nuns in Modern Japan: Keeping and Creating Tradition, Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture 14 (Summer 1990) 38-51. Bodiford, William. 2003. The Role of Women in Medieval Soto Zen, The Institute for Medieval Japanese Studies, Columbia University. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ealac/imjs/programs/1998-fall/Abstracts/bodiford.html Chodron, Ani Thubten. Why I became a Buddhist nun, Buddha Dharma Education Association. http://www.buddhanet.net/ordination02.htm Hirakawa, A., Lekshe, K. and Miura, J. 1992. The History of Buddhist Nuns in Japan, Buddhist Christian Studies Vol. 12, University of Hawaii Press, http://www.academia-research.com/files/instr/119420_history%20of%20buddhist%20nuns%20in%20japan.pdf Jianye, Shi (ed.). 1999. Cong TaiMingRi Fojiao Da Hudong Kan Niseng Zai Taiwan Da Fazhan, Chung-Hwa Journal of Buddhism Studies, No. 12: 249-274; Zouguo Taiwan Fojiao Zhuanxiangqi Di Bhikshuni---Shi Tianyi. Taipei: Zhongtian, 252-256. Jordan, David K. 1994. Changes in Postwar Taiwan and Their Impact on the Popular Practice of Religion, In Harrell, Steven and Huang Chn-chieh. Cultural Change in Postwar Taiwan. Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford: Westview Press, 142. Topley, Marjorie. 1975. Marriage Resistance in Rural Kwangtung, In Wolf, Margery and Roxane Witke (eds.). Women in Chinese Society. Standford: Stanford University Press. Return to text. Tsung, Shiu-kuen Fan. 1978. Moms, Nuns and Hookers: Extrafamilial Alternatives for Village Women in Taiwan. Ph. D. Diss., University of California, San Diego. Wang, Shunmin. 1995 (July). Dangdai Taiwan Fojiao Bianqian Zhi Kaocha, Chung- Hwa Journal of Buddhism Study, No. 8: 315-342. Read More