Origin and Development of the Lustre Technique and Its Decorative Application on Glass before 1250 AD - Essay Example

DISCUSS THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LUSTRE TECHNIQUE AND ITS DECORATIVE APPLICATION ON GLASS AND/OR CERAMICS BEFORE 1250AD. Table of Contents Islamic art (after the 6th century) To understand Islamic art it is important to know the historical context. After the Prophet (P.B.U.H.), Islam was carried forward by the system of caliphate. For understanding the evolution of Islamic art in lustre, glasswork and pottery we need to know about the Abbasids and the Fatimids. Under the Abbasid caliphate, which succeeded the Umayyads, the important point of Islamic political and cultural life shifted from Syria to Iraq. The first two centuries of Abbasid rule saw the facade and propagation of a new Islamic style of art where simply Islamic forms and new techniques were introduced1. The wealth and material opulence enjoyed by Fatimid Egypt and Syria during this epoch are also reflected in the magnificence of the art. The Fatimids palpably had a taste for scrupulously made-up gold work and intricately engraved vessels of rock crystal, a type of transparent, colorless quartz whose surface can be brilliantly burnished. Islamic art is often defined in art books as being an art whose borders are not geographical but theological. This style of art called Islamic was formed in many diverse geographic regions whose different cultures were amalgamated through the religion of Islam. Under the Fatimids ceramics and glass working were also highly developed art forms. Artisans of this period revitalized or sustained earlier techniques but gave them their own distinguishing stamp. Islamic pottery from has a long folklore, its establishment is in Prehistoric Iran. The early ceramics, though not as complicated as they would afterward become, replicate a magnificent feeling for design, with a folk art quality. The merchandise during this time consisted largely of bowls, plates and dishes made of soft reddish pottery that was enclosed in a white slip and painted in bright colors. Another attribute of Islamic ceramics from Persia are the Nishapur bowls decorated in yellow, black, green and purple, with delightful Persian motifs. Proof of the depiction of human and animal figures materialize in frescoes, metalwork and miniature painting all the way through the Islamic period, but as a statute they were not allowed in religious buildings. The Islamic world experienced many changes and shifts of supremacy, as different groups fought for domination. The different authorities and foundations included Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Chinese. Chinese earthenware and porcelain arrived at the Near East as early as 800 A.D and their various merchandise continued to stir and sway Islamic potters. The white glaze used by the Islamic potters was initiated as an outcome of their aspiration to replicate the Chinese white porcelain. Regardless of the many alterations, the immense diversity and ingenuity of ideas helped Islamic arts to prosper. The Abbasid reign and the Fatimids During the Abbasid reign, Iranian potters achieved amazing accomplishment in their art and their products revealed such affluence of pattern, affection of color, and beauty of design as were never seen earlier. Generally designs were painted under a translucent glaze or over an opaque one. In the earlier case, the work of art was typically over white or dark slips. The Abbasid pottery techniques were further transferred to the Fatimids. Fatimids have indeed put great effort in their art work thereby under the Fatimids ceramics and glass working was highly developed art form. Artisans of this period revived or continued earlier techniques but gave them their own distinctive stamp. The art of painted ceramics was likely introduced in Egypt at least by the early eleventh century and from there on it excelled to the European world. Fatimid ceramics are typically garlanded with figures, both human and animal, as for illustration a bowl with four golden fish alternating with a caption repeating the word prosperity, on an opaque turquoise ground2. Lustre pottery The most important innovation of the Islamic art world was the use of lustre. What lustre is simple to explain, it is a ceramic ornament showing golden or coppery metallic shine and that can demonstrate purple and blue iridescence. The origin of this decoration goes back to early Islamic times as the technique was practiced before the 5th century by Mesopotamians, and followed the expansion of the Arabian culture through Spain and the rest of the western Mediterranean. The lustre technique is regarded as one of the first and great innovations of Islam's early potters. As said earlier the origins of the lustre ware technique are disputed. Some say it derived from Egypt, where it was probably used to decorate glass during the first two centuries of Islam, and influenced the work of local potters in the ninth century. Others contend that the first significant employment of the technique was by the potters who centered on the Abbasid court in Baghdad and created lustreware that was exported to all corners of the Islamic domain The lustre Technique and its Technical Details It is hard to understand the technique used by the potters of that time. The making of luster ware is hard to imagine with the tools of that time. The potters first created lusterware by a process of three firings. The first firing was meant for just air drying the piece bringing it in the driest condition. This firing was done to remove the moisture out. Next step was to paint on the glaze, and then it was fired once more to set the glaze. The last stage required use of chemistry as metallic oxide was put on the piece, and it was fired for a third and final time. The final firing brought out the lustre. In the beginning, the lusters used were prepared of many colors but with the passage of time a single yellow colored luster was used. The reason behind this shift was that it was less economical and more hectic to use many colors. Researchers of the present era have tried out schemes that would translate the mechanism of the lustre production. One such perfected scheme is the Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The TEM performed showed that in all cases examined the lustre appeared to be a nano-sized metal-glass composite. The metal particle sizes range among 5 nm and 50 nm and form a layer of thickness varying between 100 nm to 1 m. A wide range of Cu to Ag ratio was observed in the lustre layers, ranging from pure silver to pure copper lustre decorations, even in the same design. Moreover, chemical analysis of medieval lustre showed a clear contradictory correlation between the metal components of the lustre decorations and the presence of Na and K in the glaze. This result allows us to deduce that a probable apparatus for the introduction of Cu and Ag into the glaze may be the ion substitute between the alkali ions originally present in the glaze and the metal captions present in the powder lustre paint during the firing. However, the lustre and glaze of these samples were quite weathered, and the loss of alkalis is very typical. Their chemical composition is related to their color, yellow, and green to brown for the silver rich lustres or orange, red to crimson for the copper rich lustres. Development of Lustre pottery Not only the use is important but to understand how this evolved is also important. Researches reveal that lustre is formed by direct application of a raw paint over a glazed ceramic which after firing in a reducing atmosphere results in the creation of the lustre layer; the outstanding paint is removed enlightening the lustre beneath. The composition of the lustre paint is therefore different from that of the final lustre layer, and may vary widely. Classic recipes are a water suspension of a powder mixture containing about 50% of clay minerals mixed with iron oxides, copper or/and silver compounds and a sulfur containing compound3. Firing in reducing atmosphere is essential to produce the conversion of the copper and silver compounds to metallic copper and silver. Origins of Lustre technique Lustre pottery gave the Muslim art an upper advantage in the medieval age. It was a fine introduction in the Islamic era. To trace the origins we need to dig deep in history as there have been conflicts on the origin of this superlative technique. Lustre-painted pottery, first developed in Iraq in the ninth century, was produced in Egypt and Syria under the Fatimids, and by the second half of the twelfth century it had reached Iran, where it achieved new heights. The center for this ceramic industry in Iran was the city of Kashan, where the recipe for this complicated technique must have been well guarded, shared by only a few families of potters4. Indeed one of greatest inventions of potters of the medieval Islamic world has been lustre-painted ceramics. This technique of lustre decoration on glass had already been practiced in Egypt and Syria as early as the 5th century. Though, Iraqi potters seem to have been the first to test with lustre decoration on opaque glazed ceramics in the 9th century. Lustre tinctures made of silver and copper oxides were painted in a range of figural beautiful designs onto the exterior of glazed vessels, which were then re-fired under a different situation. This re-firing resulted in the creation of a ceramic ware with painted beautifications that glimmered as if they were gold or silver. Lustre Techinque in Iraq (8th - 9th century) True art work traces its origin from Iraq. Iraq has been considered as an important land in the excelling of the Muslims and expansion of Islam. In their past period of grandeur, however, the Islamic potters were far more creative than the present generation of that time5. Lustreware were first created in Basra, Iraq in about AD 800. Basra was regarded as one of the prime production centers in the world at this time, exporting its merchandise to the farthest extent of the Old World. Many technical advances were formulated at Basra, together with not only lustre-painting itself but also work of art in cobalt-blue and adding tin to the glaze to make it opaque. However in about 975 A.D most of the potters had left Basra and started production in Egypt. The Baghdad potters could make good tin-glazed ware by the ninth century, but not until the 15th century was a comparable ware produced in Christian Europe where, under the names of majolica, delft or faience, it remained the finest form of pottery for another two centuries. The translucent Persian wares of the 12th century anticipated the soft-paste porcelain of France. The over glaze colors of the Minai technique preceded the enamel colors that appeared in China during the 15th century and in Europe during the 18th century. Further emphasis on this contribution of spreading art can be witnessed through the lustre technique. The research has shown that Iraqi potters were the first to practice the lustre technique and made a good market for the Muslim art industry. From Iraq the lustre technique excelled to different parts of the world where it was embellished even further thus more creativity was seen. Lustre ware in Kashan Lustreware, for the most part vessels and tiles for architectural revetment, was made in Kashan. Hallmarks of the Kashan style include the use of plump birds, both standing and in flight, and tiny spiral and comma like patterns scratched through the lustred surface, employed as a background or filler motif. Figural imagery abounds among these lustrewares, and when animals are represented, they are very often depicted with decorative spots, regardless of the appropriateness to the species. Several other closely related styles were also produced at Kashan. It was Kashan which turned out to be the centre of the activity of the potters. It was here that the potters progressively learnt the art of making wall-tiles painted in lustre. Even if we admit that the Iranian artists of Kashan are obliged to Egyptian artists it does not detract from the originality and vividness of their system in manufacturing glazed tiles. If we put side by side the examples of Egyptian pottery found in "Fustat" with Iranian pottery and glazed tiles, we reach at a conclusion that the Iranian artists showed greater dexterity in implementation and mature sense of color. Lustre on glass The lustre technique was also applied on glassware which was a boost to the ceramic industry and soon the enriched art flourished in the eastern region. This style of glassware is formulated by tinting the outside surface of the glass with a metallic oxide vapor. A very small quantity of the oxide is inserted into the kiln in a special container or a slender layer is painted or sprayed onto the body. The heat in the kiln converts the oxide into a gas which is trapped in the kiln and covers the lucid glass exterior with a thin layer of shimmering color. Transfer of technology to Egypt This highly intriguing and complex technique of pottery embellishment was most likely transferred to Egypt in the 10th century through the migration of Iraqi potters to Fatimid governed areas. It was understood that lustre pigments were better controlled on a paintbrush therefore this enabled Egyptian potters to inflate their iconographic collection of images using more defined line-drawn figures. This means that the Egyptian potters were so prolific and had such command in dexterity that their work was astonishing and propelled around the work quickly. This technique traveled further and during the 12th century the technique seems to have spread to Spain, Syria, and Iran, and in the quest potters excelled even more to add greater distinction in styles of painting. This Lustre technique gave general earthenware crockery the appearance of being made from highly ornate material such as gold, and because of this quality of luxury, lustre wares rapidly made a mark in the elite market across the Old World. Through export mechanisms they have been found as far apart as Portugal and Thailand. Lustre -Polychrome and Monochrome As and when luster technique was introduced in Egypt and in Iran where it flourished even more. There were many additions to the original art work of the Muslims and as art reached Iran a new type of sumptuous ceramic, notable for its multicolored figural adornment, was introduced during the second half of the twelfth century. Throughout the research we have seen that what are the bases of Islamic art and what role has lustre technique played in propagating Muslim art. It was seen that the polychrome technique was used rather earlier than the simple monochrome. It is due to the fact that polychrome was more eye-catching as it had many colors fed into it but later the potters recognized that carrying on with this scheme would be difficult as it was very difficult paint the ceramic in different colors and fire it again thus the potters moved on to the simpler monochrome technique which was also fascinating indeed. The polychrome exterior was created through a costly and convoluted double firing and in fact both wares are attributable to Kashan, where they may have been made by some of the same potters, in the same workshops. In this procedure, which is termed as Minai in modern terminology, a ceramic vessel was covered with a white or a turquoise opaque glaze and then fired. The ornamentation was applied both under and over the glaze. Steady colors such as cobalt blue and turquoise, which could be fired successfully at a high temperature, were applied under the glaze before the first firing. The less stable colors were applied to the cold glazed surface and fixed in a second firing at a lower temperature. While lusterware was also being practiced in Egypt, Egyptians had their own styles and their luster ware was painted with birds, animals, and human figures as this art progressed from the Fatimid period. Later the technology was passed on to Syria as well but in the 11th century the production of lustreware stopped as the potters were inventing a new style known as "Tell Minis" ware. Transfer of technology to Iran Iran flourished as art arrived in the industry and researches were made to acknowledge more ways and techniques of broadening the perspectives. More to the Iranian addition was the lively figural designs that characterize Minai ware sometimes include problematical storyline scenes, some of which clearly refer to Persian literature, in particular the Shahnama, or Book of Kings, the Iranian national epic. In other instances, these wares are decked with horsemen, or seated and standing princes often clad in boldly patterned costumes. An excellent and well-preserved example of the latter type of Minai is the graceful 'ewer' ornamented with small, dexterously painted horsemen in the upper register, and seated courtiers, a musician, and perhaps a dancer in the lower band. The accurate meaning of these figures, which give the impression of representing the good life, has yet to be deciphered. Minai ware was in fact not produced after the thirteenth century, although it remains on of the best known and most popular types of medieval Iranian ceramics. Conclusion Lustreware has been a fine addition in the Muslim art era. Many other techniques such as brick painting and more have been lately developed after the intrusion of this type of painting. Besides their lustreware, Islamic ceramics are famous for their intriguing decorations, which include animal motifs, floral patterns, and calligraphy. These techniques have also influenced other potters. The French produced beautifully crafted pieces, which included motifs first made in Islam. Even in the present day, Islamic potters are decorating their works with their style of calligraphy. The calligraphy used on their pieces is most often religious or sacred messages from the Quran or Islamic holy book. The Quran is said to be God's revelation which he spoke to the prophet Muhammad. Though not as famous as the lustreware or ornaments, the Islamic under glaze techniques have also influenced the potters of various other countries. Around the eighteenth century, Polish potters used under glazed color decorations. This under glaze technique is still used immensely among Islamic potters. Word Count 3162 (without main heading, TOC and bibliography) Bibliography 1. Caiger A. Smith, Lustre Pottery. Technique, Tradition and Innovation in Islam and the Western World. (Faber & Faber, London, UK, 1985) 2. 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