Description, Analysis and History of the Development External Trade in Cyprus during Late Bronze Age - Essay Example

?Your External Trade in Cyprus during Late Bronze Age Cyprus is an ancient island with a great history. It is surrounded by Egypt from south, Aegean from west, Mesopotamia and Persia from the east. Due to its pivotal location, it played significant role in external relation of these adjacent countries. However, it was not as significant as its neighbouring countries, such as, Egypt and Syria. The Bronze Age is stretched over a long period of time. Late Bronze Age is considered to be the golden period for Cyprus (LBA I: 1600-1400, LBA II1400- 1200, LBA III 1200- 1050), archaeological materials have been discovered that reveal deafening external trade and thriving culture of Mediterranean countries. External trade of Cyprus included export and import to and from its neighbouring countries, such as; Egypt, Anatolia, Syria, Levant and Palestine. These trading ties caused the island to have a substantial influence in the region. Foreign trades and resulting ties with the neighbouring countries made Cypriot economy quite significant during the Late Bronze Age. Development of these external relations at different phases will be investigated in a brief manner. This investigation includes the effect of migration and subsequently the transfer of Mycenaean skills, pottery making with the variety of styles and industry of ship manufacturing. Exported potteries and the underlying low quality limited its use to only ointment and oil containers. The paper discusses foreign trade of Cyprus, resulting relations with the trading partners, and its economic, social, and cultural impacts on Cyprus. Cyprus Role in Trading during the Late Bronze Age During the Late Bronze Age, Cyprus had been one of the most significant locations in the Mediterranean trade route; however, it couldn’t compete in popularity with its adjacent wealthier countries. There are several reasons for lacking importance, such as, insufficient information about Cyprus due to the fact that it was not mentioned enough in the written records about Late Bronze Age, and that it was geographically separated from other important nations. Major way of learning about the condition of Cyprus in late Bronze Age is to investigate its foreign relations through the archaeological remains and written texts from that era. Archaeological and textual evidence provide great insight when it comes to investigate and comprehend about the foreign trade in Cyprus during late Bronze Age.1Knapp explains and demonstrates the existence of politico-economic elites in Cyprus during Middle and Late Bronze Age through evidence (qtd. in Knapp 151). Amarna letters of Alashiya suggest that Cyprus had become an influential and affluent kingdom at least by the 14th century BC. Ruler of the time considered himself on an equal level with Egyptian Pharaoh. This perception may link to the use of salutation, ‘my brother’.2 Cypriot rulers used state agents (called tamkar) in order to carry out foreign trade on massive level. Cyprus Exports Due to disintegration in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean, Cypriot economy started to become recognized throughout the eastern Mediterranean and export of goods started. Particularly, this recognition boosted the copper production and trade. On Cyprus, ethnic elements of Aegean and Levantine were combined with Cypriot population. Moreover, the capabilities of industrial work started mounting.3 Copper According to the information from textual evidences from Late Bronze Age Cyprus, copper was the central and most exported item from the island during 13th and 14th century B.C. One of the countries that imported the Cypriot copper was Egypt. Moreover, referring to the beliefs in Egyptian texts, such as Amarna letters, Karageorghis (1975) highlights the presence of several mining areas in Cyprus, such as, Troodos foothills in Enkomi. Copper was exported as a major item to mould into weapons during battles while most weapons were made in Aegean. In addition, Cyprus (Enkomi) had huge supply of copper produced in large quantities that was exported to the countries like Levantine. The copper import assisted the island to prosperity and profit and boosted the import of luxury goods. There are some evidences that Cyprus has exchanged copper with different materials from other countries, silver from Egypt, and artificial goods from Syria and Anatolia.4 Knapp and Cherry (1994) suggest that because Cyprus was undergoing an urban development, therefore, more evidence of copper production can be seen throughout the whole island such as copper smelting; even if it was confined to the impure copper chunks which was refined there.5 However, Cyprus was not the main supplier of copper sent to Aegean during the Late Bronze Age. It is true that half of the copper metal that has been found in the Mycenaean region was produced in Lavrion in Attica. 6 In the Late Bronze Age II the importance of copper production in Cyprus and its distribution to the island economies of Cyprus, Crete, and Sardinia in Italy has become evident due to advanced and recent archaeological researches. The shipwrecks, Uluburun (excavated between 1984 -1994) (fig.1) and Cape Gelidonya found on the south west of Turkish coast proved the metal trading practice through sea. Moreover, these also suggest a close business relationship between the mass trades in copper ingots (in the form of an oxhide mostly in rectangular shape, weights 25 and 28 kg) and coastal areas.7 The two shipwrecks of Ulu Burun and Cape Gelidoniya had the huge deposits of copper ingots.8 In the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean, copper ingoting was a distinctive practice or phenomenon since it was the most practical way to exchange metals in large amount.9 The metals were obtained from Apliki-Karamallos mines which are located throughout the Mediterranean regions, from the north Bulgaria, the west Sardinia and the east Greece and Syria. This particular arrangement made Cyprus the most important copper supplier in the eastern Mediterranean. The trade relation between Cyprus and these countries stimulated internal growth in the settlements of Cyprus; therefore, they tried to produce more copper in order to exchange it with other goods, such as, tools and weapons. 10 Figure 1-Shipwreck excavated between 1984 and 1994 Wood and Oil Exports Second most important export item for Cyprus was wood. Referring to Amarna letter, Karageorghis (1975) explains, in addition to exporting woods, such as, pine and oak, Cyprus was constructing and exporting ships as well. Ship export by Cyprus was made possible because of huge amounts of timber in the mountains of its western region.11Likewise, oil was another significant good that contributed to Cypriot exports. There is ample evidence, such as Amarna letters (Karageorghis, 1975) that proves oil trade by highlighting the Cypriot vessels carrying oil found in Egypt, Syria and Palestine.12 Pottery Cypriot pottery was one of the significant materials found in the island. There are several clear evidence available that indicate the large amounts of pottery export from Cyprus during Late Bronze Age ( until about 1200 BC) such as, Base Ring I, II wares (fig. 2) and white Slip I, II wares (fig. 3) which were handmade during that time period.13 Base Ring had usually thin walls with a cover of highly polished brown slip, while some of them were with white painted lines. Jugs with tall necks and bowls with wishbones handles, and juglets which are considered to be used for keeping opium poppy are some examples of this type of vases. This kind of pottery was exported to Aegean, Palestine, Egypt and Syria.14 However, only four bowls and a couple of sherds have been found during excavation in Anatolia. Black slip, Red on Black, Monochrome wares, and Red polished wares were other types of Base Ring compounds of Cyprus. Black slip ware was mostly made in eastern Cyprus while Red on black was found in northern Cyprus. Monochrome ware was common in Troodos eastern Cyprus and the Karpass.15 Vessels of White Slip ware were thick, polished, somewhat shiny, and were made from pure clay of the southern Troodos. It was used by the potters to cover the particular kind of coarse fabric with orange, black and brown lines or sometimes in two colours. Jugs and jugslet crater were made on specific occasions. However, the most popular shape was the so-called milk bowl with the round based wall16which was exported to the east, Levant, Mersin and Anatolia. Therefore, in 14th and 13th century BC, Cyprus established close relations with Egypt and Near East through its pottery.17Although there was a reduction in the quality of both Base Ring ware and White Slipware over the years, Cyprus continued to produce and export it until the end of Cypriot II.18 Figure 2-Double juglet of Base Ring ware Figure 3-A milk bowl with a wishbone handle During Late Bronze Age I and II, many Cyprus vessels were also exported to Palestine. After several excavations, it became evident that pottery export was carried out more extensively in Late Bronze Age II as compared to Late Bronze Age I. The vessels have been found in various places, for instance, in Egypt they were found in tombs while in Palestine, they were found in towns.19 Irrespective of the fact that Cyprus shipped large number of pottery items to other countries, such as Egypt, the closed vessels including base ring I and II container were not necessarily considered to be the best in quality and decoration. Therefore, we can infer that if the importance of these shipments was not because of the potteries then it is highly likely that their content was of high value. Those Cypriot containers might have had some kind of oil or ointment which could be valuable.20The pottery export from Cyprus in Late Bronze Age illustrated the unparalleled “levels of wealth in to the economy and accelerated class divisions.”21 Imports to Cyprus For Cyprus import activity, there is not as many written evidence available as it was for Cyprus exports. However, in Amarna letters, it has been mentioned that many luxury things have been ordered by Cypriot king and officials during this time from Levant or Egypt, such as, horses, linens, ebony, silver, glass, ostrich eggs (found in Enkomi and Kition), jewellery, alabaster, ivory, and perfumes. By finding evidence and examining the jewellery or other similar essential things, we can probably say that these items could be Cypriot imports. 22 Gold and Raw Material Cyprus has obviously imported gold and raw materials from the east that were common in the Late Bronze Age. According to Hittite text (Karageorghis, 1975) gold was one of the Cypriot offerings, Karageorghis believed there were a few gold sources in Cyprus; however, the excavated gold from the Cypriot tombs was used by local manufacturers to make gold items, moreover, these items were sent to neighbouring countries as tributes from the island. Gold jewellery has been found in the tombs of Cypriot during Late Bronze Age II which was made and imported by experts. Egypt, Mycenaean Greece, and Syria were the main suppliers of gold in this period and Cyprus had great deal of trade with Egypt. It is important to consider that Cyprus possibly imported gold from Egypt.23Although loop-in-loop chain was one of Cypriot innovations, Cypriot craftsmen learnt techniques of decorative items from Mycenaean Greece and Egypt, such as, granulation and swivel finger-ring.24 Alabaster was found in some parts of Cyprus and in some parts of the Mediterranean coastline with quite good quality, its fine quality certainly belonged to Egypt. Several alabaster items excavated from Cyprus, such as jugs, jars, and amphorae have been classified as Egyptian manufactured goods.25 Ivory Ivory (raw material) was another luxury item that was imported to Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age. Several ivory items had been excavated in Cyprus, but they have different origins, such as, egg-shaped brede that belonged to Egyptian source. Moreover, Aegean, Egyptian, and Syro- Palestinian influences can be traced on the ivory objects. However, the effect of Syro- Palestinian is far greater than the others. It seems obvious that because of greater number of elephants in Syria during that period, huge amount of ivory was imported from Syria. Glass Glass and glass wares were among other items found in the island. They include pomegranate shaped jogs (fig. 4), base ring shaped glass, a footed flask, three and two handled flasks with conical bottom, and vases with single or no handle. No Anatolia or the Aegean glass objects have been seen in Cyprus, but a glass mold-pressed Astarte seems to have Syro-Palestine origin. Considering this evidence, it can be inferred that majority of glass importation was from Egypt, such as, the objects mentioned above.26 Figure 4-Glass vessel in the form of pomegranate Pottery Large quantities of pottery was imported to Cyprus from Syro-Palestinian, Levant, Egypt, Trojan ‘tan wares’ and a single ‘knobbed wares’ vessels, and some of Late Minoan pottery. Such as, Kamares ware cup that has been discovered from around twelve sites, but just one sherd of Anatolian pottery was made in Syria. It is worth mentioning that the Syrian pottery contains some signs of local Cypriot art. Moreover, there were Syrian craftsmen in Cyprus who made the Syrian pottery because during the late Bronze Age the Cypriot artisans did not use wheels to make pottery. However, by testing the clay, it was proved that the items were found in Cyprus, and the vessels were wheel-made, like Palestinian pottery with black and red decoration and a figurine (that for about fifty years from 1600 BC) was produced in Cyprus. Practically, these wheel made potteries did not have any influence on Cypriot handmade vessels. Large amount of pottery was imported from Syro- Palestinian in Late Bronze Age I while only small number was brought in Late Bronze Age II and III, such as, Syrian jars, Bichrome ware, Plain White Wheel made ware and Black Punctured ware. It is identified from vessels found at Tell Abu Hawam.27 In addition, majority of Aegean pottery has been found in Late Bronze II and lesser was found in Late Bronze Age I and III.28 One type of pottery that was exported from Levant was ‘Canaanite jar’ about which some excavators thought that it might have been made in Cyprus.29 Mycenaean Pottery Mycenaean pottery was imported to Cyprus during 1400-1200 BC. During Late Bronze Age, diverse Cypriot society exploited its copper resources in order to get other items in exchange(qtd. in Wijngaarden 275).It has been found in tombs and settlements of Enkomi (used as the harbour for Kalosidha, one of the Cyprus’ most advanced primitive towns)30, Hala Sultan Tekke, Pyla, Larnaka, Maroni, Episkopi, and Kouklia. They contain large number of different varieties in types and shapes, such as, stirrup jar used as container for keeping perfumed oil. They were wheel- made and used good quality of clay. Grerstad (1980) suggests that in 14th century or later Mycenaean age, pottery had been made in Cyprus by Mycenaean colonies and not in Mycenae, however, the idea was not supported by anyone. Some archaeological evidences including Hittite texts and a few true Greece texts reveal that Mycenaean Greece came to Cyprus precisely between two period of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age.31 In these days, by running examination on the pottery clay using neutron activation, it is evident that Mycenaean pottery were produced somewhere in that area. For instance, the vases have been found in Enkomi were made in Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos.32 However, before the Late Bronze II the connection between Mycenaean and Cyprus pottery was limited to six sites and only few scattered vases or sherds. It may suggest that there were limited connection between Cyprus and Mycenaean pottery. But during the Late Bronze Age II, Mycenaean pottery was produced in over sixty sites. Investigation of Mycenaean vases shows that they were made in Peloponnese on the southern part of Greece and were exported to Cyprus. Furthermore, some sites in 14th century BC, such as, Enkomi, Pyla, Hala, Sultan Tekke, and Maronianel Kourion imitate these vessels and produced large amount of Mycenaean pottery. It included big vessels with decoration in pictorial design33 (chariots, birds and bulls) amphorae, and open kraters (used for wine) (fig. 5).Besides imitation, they manufactured their own pottery.34 It is worth mentioning here that in the 12th century Mycenaean refugee had great influence on Cyprus pottery. They brought their skills and trained Cypriot potters.35 Figure 5-Mycenaean vessel (krater) decorated with chariots Cultural Influences When it comes to export and export, strategic relationship and wealth between Cyprus and the Mediterranean countries holds great importance. Some precious items, such as: jewellery, pottery, goddesses, faience, and stone vases were found in tombs. In the tombs at Enkomi something like a filet has been found that was used to wrap the eyes of the woman’s dead body. Tomb items and faience objects may be influenced by Egypt. In addition, Mycenae had an influence in decorating graves by using vases and decorated vessels in graves.36Mycenaean pottery gave birth to an elite lifestyle in Cyprus. This lifestyle was associated with particular cultural practices, for instance, ceremonial dining and other unguents and oils related activities. Specialized production of Mycenaean pottery in Aegean was aimed for foreign market of Cyprus (Wijngaarden 276). The information achieved from searching the tomb, archaeological evidence in the Enkomi along with Cypriot items, and all the pottery work represent the trading success and prosperity of Cyprus through the cultural development over both first and second periods of the Late Bronze Age. Cyprus’s trading power had become significant and it reached to its climax over pre-historic times in the eastern Mediterranean. It was evident through not only the export of large amount of Cypriot goods to the other countries but also the import of foreign objects in Cyprus. It was before the period of Rameses II that most Cyprus’s importation to Egypt was carried out. However, the exportation of Cypriot objects to countries, such as, Syria and Palestine took place continuously. Moreover, these items (Base- ring ware and White Slip ware) were found in places such as Cilicia, Alisar and Troy.37 With reference to the technology and trade practice during Late Bronze Age, it can be observed that what sort of influence the technologies related to production, exchange of pottery or even metals had on the society of Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age. Given what was mentioned above, it should be considered that the earliest phase of the Bronze Age from Middle Cypriot III to Late Cypriot I presents some sort of uniformity in material culture not only in the way that Base Ring and White Slip wares were distributed but also in the metallurgical materials which were mainly produced on the east coast site of Enkomi.38 In any society, production, exchange, and transportation of raw material or luxury goods trigger the diversity within social system and lead to identify and establish not only central trading routes but also specialized trading hubs (Hirth 1978, Hodges 1982, Irwin 1978a, Rathje 1971 qtd. in Knapp 53). During Late Bronze Age II (1450- 1200 BC), Cyprus not only exchanged goods with Egypt, the northern Levant, and Syro-Palestine continuously but also improved its trade with the southern- most Levant. It possibly had small business with Anatolia. Cyprus manufactured pottery in large amount which was exported to the eastern Mediterranean. Simultaneously, importation from Levantine and Egyptian was also continued to arrive in Cyprus. In luxury item, such as, jewelry, a stylistic influence that belonged to near eastern region can be observed. Some similarities in material culture between Levantine urban centre and their Cypriot counterparts may be noticed. It should be mentioned that business between Cyprus and Egypt decreased gradually. Trade between Cyprus and the Levant entirely stopped by the end of 18 Dynasty (1300 BC), and at the end of Late Bronze Age II (1200 BC). 39With the collapse of centralized political system in Late Bronze Age, the impact combined with the effect of exchange ways promoted by the system spread beyond their eastern Mediterranean zone and Cyprus was no exception. 40 Conclusion Cyprus with its geographically significant harbours was one of the countries that had strong external relation with its neighbors. Mediterranean Sea proved to be the major source of connection between these countries. Numerous ships transferred stone vessels, pottery, wood, and luxury materials between Cyprus and its neighboring countries. Cyprus with great resources of copper was the main supplier of copper that was primarily used for weapon and tool making. National resources were of great important which enhanced its position even more. Pottery was another significant material that Cyprus imported and exported. There were two types of pottery exported: Base Ring I and II, White Slip I and II. Milk bowls and juglets were also exported in huge amount. In addition to the exportation pottery, some kinds of vessels were imported to island from Levant and Aegean. Mycenaean pottery in this period with the shapes of birds, bulls and chariots were found in tombs at Enkomi. Moreover, the pottery was sometimes buried with dead person wearing necklace, earrings, Egyptian filet and Mycenaean shields. Consequently, Cyprus foreign trade including exportation of copper, wood, ships, oil and importation of gold, jewelry, silver, pottery and luxury items strengthened Cyprus’s position gradually both on internal and external level. Two-way trade not only brought new product to the country but also brought in immigrants from nearby countries. The immigrants brought their knowledge and skills with them. In this way, they not only benefitted local residents by the goods they produced but also by the training they provided them. This productive and collaborative environment laid the foundations of an enriched and dynamic culture. It enriched Cypriot life styles by exposing them to different products, cultures, and approaches towards life. Furthermore, using sea route for trading opened several other avenues for trading with far off countries. Last but not the least, external trade led Cyprus to progress not only in terms of financial gains but also influenced its social, political and religious aspects. Work Cited A. Bernard Knapp and John F. Cherry. 1994. Provenience studies and Bronze Age Cyprus, Prehistory Press Diana Bolger. 2003. Gender in Ancient Cyprus, Altamira Press A. c. Brown and H. W. Catling. 1975. Ancient Cyprus, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford B. F. Cook. 1979. Cypriot Art in the British Museum, London, British Museum Publications limited Gjerstad. Elinar. 1980. Ages and Days in Cyprus Kathryn O.Eriksson.2007. The Creative Indepence of Late Bronze Age Cyprus, Vorgelegt von w.M.Manfred Bietak in der Sitzung C.Spyridakis.1964. A Brief History of Cyprus, Nicosia, Publication Department Greek Communal Chamber Karageorghis. V. 2003. Ancient Cypriote Art in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, A. G. LEVENTIS FOUNDATION Karageorghis. V. 1975. The Archeology of Cyprus, Noyes Press Knapp,Bernard. “Copper production and eastern Mediterranean trade: the rise of complex society on Cyprus.”State and society: the emergence and development of social hierarchy and political centralization .Ed.Gledhill,J., Bender,B., and Larsen, M.T.London:Routledge,1995.151-155.Print. Steel. Louise.2004. Cyprus Before History, Gerald Duckwprth and Co. Ltd Tatton- Brown. Veronica. 1987. Ancient Cyprus, British Museum Publications Wijngaarden,G.J.V. Use and appreciation of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy(ca.1600-1200 BC).Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press,2002.Print. Read More