Euthanasia, Reproduction, Cloning and Genetics - Essay Example

Submitted Philosophical Journal/Diary reflecting one's own thoughts and opinions On Euthanasia, Reproduction, Cloning and Genetics Word Count 4069 words Table of Contents Euthanasia 3 Reproduction 7 Cloning 11 Genetics 15 Works Cited 19 Euthanasia The important point in the controversy of Euthanasia is that both pro-choice side and anti-euthanasia side use similar broad definition to achieve opposite effects. The above fact is supported by the claims and rights associated with it as both the groups regard the definition of Euthanasia as a paradoxical partnership. Their views differ in claims and rights of the patient. The pro choice group insists on the autonomy that gives a right to refuse life support treatment in case of painful living. The opposite group talks about the choice of decision maker who can offer necessary pain relief treatment even in the context of shortening of life. In the above context, the opposite choice group feel that the decision of assisting in euthanasia is intention to kill. In contract, the pro-choice groups argue that the favouring of euthanasia is due to intention of achievement of good and comfortable death. In that context, the opposite choice group feel that the sanctity of life is above the autonomy of one's decision to live or die. While discussing about the dividing line between acceptable and unacceptable measures, Somerville Margaret (2002), argues that both sides are wrong as the dividing line lies somewhere in the middle of both the arguments. The balance of the arguments lies in the right of competent adults to refuse treatment, which is painful. The refusal for the treatment lies in the fact that it is their right to have a treatment that can relieve pain even it shortens the life. Hence, the argument void of right of refusal of the painful treatment does not give a clear logic about the Euthanasia irrespective of pro and anti arguments. 1 While discussing pros and cons of Euthanasia, one have to consider the modern Hippocratic Oath that is taken by medical students from 1964. In that, it is clear that a doctor should avoid the twin traps of over treatment and therapeutic nihilism. Here one can quote Louis Lasagna about nihilism, which is a doctrine that declares nothing can be known or communicated. As Louis Lasagna is against therapeutic nihilism, the doctor should consider the views and intentions of patient regarding Euthanasia and should think combining them with medical ethics. In addition the modern Hippocratic Oath on web site of Nova Onlilne (pbs.org) states that, the duty of the doctor is to tread with care in matters of life and death. The doctor has to act responsibly in case of saving and taking life but with all humbleness and awareness. The above factor supports the idea of taking a life of patient on moral and humanitarian grounds without acting on god. Hence, as per the responsibility of the modern Hippocratic Oath, the administrations can allow Euthanasia in special cases that are according to norms prescribed in legislation. The modern Hippocratic Oath also states that "The doctor should treat a patient keeping in mind a sick human being but not a fever chart of a cancerous growth". The above quote states that the doctor should follow moral values and more technical while prescribing and emotional while treating. However, the emotions should not dominate the treatment, but they should guide the doctor up to the level maintaining morality about addressing the concerns of family and economic stability of the patient. According to above concerns in modern Hippocratic Oath, the pro choice groups can argue that the Euthanasia is reasonable if it relieves a patient from his painful sickness in the context of medical science is unable to treat him or relieve him of pain. Even in that inevitable situation, the question arises about the poor patient who suffers and cannot avail the benefits of medical science. In the above context, the role of benevolent society is important to avoid the Euthanasia of poor patients by allowing them to avail the benefits of medical science irrespective of their economic status. Hence, to make poor patients able to avail all the benefits of medical science is important than Euthanasia as it avoids to a larger extent the decision of patients to die. 2 According to Thomasma David C (1998), while considering the responsibilities of Doctors, Nurses and patient himself, the criteria accepted within the medical profession should be identified. The first criteria is the voluntary request on the part of the patient. Other than voluntary nature of the request, the intention of the patient should arise from the full information regarding his disease or physical ailment. The next part is the expert's or the doctor's view. He/they should be convinced of the situation that is intolerable to the patient and the doctor should be convinced that there are no other alternatives to euthanasia to relieve the pain for the patient. Even the doctor should take opinion of the other experienced doctor before accepting the patients request regarding euthanasia. However, it is important to compile the requirements followed by the physician by a legislation, so that it will be clear to all physicians facing the dilemma regarding accepting the patient's request Dutch debate and legislation regarding euthanasia are suggestible in listing rights and responsibilities of patient and doctor in the context of euthanasia. However, other requirements like medical ethics and careful administration of medication is necessary and consultation with the nurses is also important. Out of all the above requirements, the good medical practice; relieving the patient from mental or physical suffering should be the criteria in assisting a suicide. The good medical practice comes under good requirements of medical profession. 3 Next in the discussion is about the moral, impersonal, emotional and impartial aspects of the decision made by doctor. However, the emotional and moral aspects in Euthanasia find ground if all the patients irrespective of their financial status are making avail the benefits of medical science. By confirming the above aspect or the attempts made by the administrations to enable all people of all economic standards to avail the benefits of medical science, the poverty of the patient in opting for Euthanasia can be discussed. In the absence of the ability of the patient to avail the benefits of medical science to cure his disease, the decision of suicide can be regarded as the callousness of the society to the fellow beings. Even the judges should consider emotional issues of the patients regarding effects of pain on their family and economic stability. However, the emotional nature of thinking should not go beyond that as it may distort the legal outcome. All the above mentioned topics can only be justified when it is assured that in a society any patient is assured of availing all the benefits of medical science irrespective of his/her economic status. Reproduction Reproduction's labour is all associated with Women and hence the right of refusing or allowing the foetus to stay in her body should remain with her. However, while thinking about Women's rights on her body, it is necessary to think about the alternatives that avoid the fertilisation in the women's body and nullifies pregnancy before getting it. Hence, when a woman is against the pregnancy or it is unwanted for her, the decision of using contraceptive should prevail over the right of her to keep or get rid of the foetus in her body. However, if she is willing to have pregnancy, but the modern medical science determines that the foetus after taking birth cannot live comfortably like normal human beings, then there should be a law to allow women to decide on foetus in her body within a stipulated period of the pregnancy. Currie, Dawn H (1992) includes an article by Kelly E. Maier, which talks about Women's rights and decision of mother regarding child birth. Maier talks about the responsibility of social workers in upholding rights of women again patriarchal interests in reproduction. Maier states that the critical assessment of reproductive wrongs can lead to a practical action. Hence, she emphasises the importance of assessment of reproductive wrongs by medical authorities as well as social workers from the perspective of Women's rights as well as the Foetus's right to take birth. The reproductive violations against women, which result in female gendered injustice that is due to overt reproductive violence is a reproductive wrong and should be considered as reproductive wrong. In the above-mentioned case, the right of Women regarding her body should prevail over the right of foetus to take birth as the pregnancy is due to reproductive wrong and violence. 4 However, in the other contexts, which give women the chance to avoid pregnancy the question regarding the prevalence of right of women and right of foetus remains. Zelewski Marysia (2000) quotes the contraceptive pill that can prevent unwanted pregnancies to avoid pregnancy. However, the author talks about the ingestion of large doses of hormones into the women's body whenever she does not want to be pregnant. Again in the above mentioned context of ingestion of hormones by contraceptive pills, the right of the women on her body again be violated as well as the violation in case of refusal to abort by medical authorities. Due to the presence of contraceptive pill, women may have less chance to say no to sexual intercourse if they do not want the pregnancy and her right on her body will be violated again due to the contraceptive pill. Hence, most of the feminists say that the contraceptive pill was developed keeping in mind the needs of men and that do not caters to the needs of women. While considering about Women's rights, the medical and ethical theorists talk about the silent pain of the foetus being aborted keeping in view the right of the Woman about her body. Zalewski Marysia (2000) quotes about the Dr Bernard Natahanson's show of the real time ultrasound imaging of a 12 week old foetus that is being aborted. The show tells the pain experienced by foetus while it is being aborted. However, post modernistic view of feminism deals with foetus pain as well as improvement of women's lives. As the post modernistic feminist exert energies on interrogating the ways in which truth claims are made, the they need exercise of power and practices need challenges and thus destabilised. Hence, the theories about the rights of women and foetus are constantly destabilised and thus may result in constant destabilisation of the practices regarding women's rights. However, the concentration of theories on liberating women from patriarchy and capitalism may not consider the right and pain of foetus to exist and while aborting. However, the post modernistic theories about reproduction and women cannot think about rights of foetus that came into existence due to combined act of male and female is a victim of women's rights theory. As the foetus is silent and cannot express its views, there are no body to talk about its rights and pain. Hence, it is necessary for post modernistic feminists to think about the foetus's rights as long as the sexual act of female is intentional and not due to oppression. 5 However, in the case of sexual acts that involve oppression and violation of women's rights and those results in loss of self esteem for women, court can order for partial-birth abortion ban. According to Siegel Reva (2008) of Yale Law school emphasises the regulation methods employed to perform an abortion. In the above case the woman deciding to abort her foetus should be well informed about the way the abortion being done. She should be informed about the piercing the skull of the foetus while aborting and the pain caused to unborn foetus a she may regret her choice to abort after the abortion, if she comes to know about the procedure of the abortion. However, anti abortion proponents quote the coercion of the women to decide in favour of abortion. The above aspect may also be a reasonable thing to consider, but this will not consider the pregnancies women face due to sexual acts that violate their rights and dignity. The foetus, which is a result of violation of rights and oppression, cannot be considered as a thing that attracts women's affection and in that case, the women's rights should prevail over the foetus right to take birth. Hence, the partial abortion acts should include take into consideration the thoughts of women about the cause of pregnancy. If not, according Justice Ginsburg quoted by Siegel Reva, the restrictions of abortion enforce unconstitutional stereotypes about women's agency and women's roles as well as women's rights. Hence, the restriction of abortion should be flexible and should give space to the feelings of women in the case of pregnancy, which is a result o sexual acts that violate the rights of women and oppress them. 6 Cloning Cloning is a technological aspect that raised a discussion about rights and risks of humans and researchers. After the cloning of Dolly, it has been established that the cloning can be done with adult cells and number of countries responded by banning human cloning. When one thinks from the side of cloning researchers, it is violation of their rights and simultaneously protection of rights of human beings from the affects of human cloning, which are not debated and did not stand for the test of time. As there is another way to reproduce, the natural way of fertilisation of egg and sperm, the risks of cloning can overcome the rights of cloning researchers as they cannot support their right in terms of reduced risk factors than the natural way of reproduction or existing ways of artificial fertilisation and reproduction. In the case of cloning the legal as well as religious bodies responded in same manner as there is no logic that supports the rights of cloning researchers. However, there are some scholars that support the rights of cloning researchers as they talk about human enhancement due to cloning. However, as there is no clear logic or technology that supports the aspect of human enhancement, the argument of supporters of the rights of cloning researchers took a set back and the risk factor in human cloning prevailed over them. However, the cloning is a boon in agriculture as it is the bearer of news that reproduces prize cows for milking and seeds that give extra production and resistant to diseases. However, when it comes to humans, no body is ready to take risk in cloning of humans as the newly born may or not be a context of human enhancement. Hence, until it is sure that the technology assures that the cloning guarantees an enhancement of life of either animals or humans, the fear of risk need to be prevail over the right to clone of the researchers. However, the human cloning promises the relieving of infertility and to get rid of genetic diseases, but do not overrule the possibilities of other discrepancies, which the cloning researchers are not aware of. Hence, when it comes to the rights of cloning researchers, administrations can grant them permission to clone the organs and bone marrows and can prohibit the human cloning. Human cloning still is a prohibition because, it does not answer the questions regarding the nucleus of the society; the family. As there is chance for human cloning to make it possible the special hazards as the reproductive technologies change, it is reasonable to regulate the human cloning by legislations until there is assurance that the effect of cloning on the family can be resisted or neglected by the society. 7 Coming to the religious beliefs that come in the way of cloning, Islam states that god created primitive man and woman and then the mankind developed in a natural manner. Hence, they believe that the divine art of creation cannot be replicated and they do not support cloning technology of reproduction of humans. As they believe that a pair's interaction should be cause for reproduction, they do not support cloning. As Islam believes that the creation of humans is an act of divinity, the people who believe in Islam cannot accept the reproductive technology with cloning as an ethical process, though the risk in reproduction through cloning is as less as in natural reproduction. In the same lines as above the Buddhism also is having some ethical issues concerning cloning that questions the motives Human cloning intentions. Buddhists talk about the weakening of human institutions due to cloning and they regard it as unethical. Hence, to convince them the technology developments in cloning should not undermine the institutions like family in the society. As nothing can repeat exactly, the inaccuracy of prediction of all motives of all future stops Buddhism to feel that cloning is ethical. Buddhists question the cloning in another aspect of protecting interests of cloned. As there is no framework or assurance that the lack of family institution can protect the cloned ones, the Buddhists can never accept is as ethical. As Buddhists and Hindus believe in reincarnation, the assurance of cloning for reincarnation can make them accept the cloning as ethical. However, till now there is no such assurance in cloning, the different religious groups like Islam, Buddhists and Hindus cannot accept Cloning as ethical. Now coming to another predominant religion Judaism, the Jewish perspective genetics does not fall within the Jewish texts and hence their texts cannot consider cloning as ethical. As Jewish teachings believe life as holy as god and they debate on the starting point of life. 8 Voneky Silja (Editor) (2004) quotes the ambiguity regarding starting point of life in Jewish texts and that again creates ambiguity about the starting point of life in cloning. Hence, they do not feel the cloning reproductive technologies ethical as they do not tell about the starting point of life. Even in the case of Christian perspective, Vooneky Slija quotes the Judeo Christian terms that excludes the humans left at the disposal of others from universal community or humanity. Hence, the cloned humans cannot part of universal humanity or community according to Christian philosophy. 9 As nothing is impossible in technology and development of technology reduces risk, there is every possibility to reduce risk in reproduction technologies involving cloning as less as in natural reproduction. However, the people of all communities and countries should think above their religion and be assured that the family institution will not be disturbed to cloning. Only in that context, the different communities can recognise the right of cloning above the risk of cloning and feel that the cloning is ethical. As long as there is no assurance for protection of family institutions in any society and humans can think above family and can live without family institution, the cloning cannot be considered ethical even in the context of offering risk as low as the natural reproduction. Genetics The genetic medicine and science revealed the way to detect the diseases that can be inherited to the baby from the parents. The innovations and advances in genetic medicine makes possible to avoid some of the diseases caused by flawed genes inherited by the baby from its parents. However, the knowledge regarding human genome and genetic diseases thrusts new dilemmas of technology, ethics and social justice into the public spotlight. In the present discussion, the point of contention is to choose between avoiding a genetically inherited disease to the baby or not treating it as it comes under obstructing natural phenomenon. If the latter is true, the technological advances always interfered in natural ways and obstructed the natural happenings. For example, Caesarean operation is not a natural way to give birth to a baby, but we adopted it as a compulsion to save mom and child and are using technology regarding Caesarean as the boon to women. In the same sense, it is ethical to avoid diseases to the would be baby as it is inhuman and unethical to leave a human being to die with its disease, knowing that it can be cured. At every point of advances of medical science, new therapies and diagnostic advances emerged and the possibility of avoiding and conquering the diseases increased resulting in increasing the life span as well as health and immunity of the human beings than in the past. In the same sense, Genetics in the present time and in future has and will have powerful implications for all humanity. Hence, preventing the possible genetically inherited diseases affecting the baby will be humane and not opposing the natural phenomenon. Though, we think that it is opposing natural phenomenon, it has been done in every advance of technology and every advance in technology brings in new natural phenomenon into the being. Genetic study declares that the high risk genes carried in the people's bodies may later produce cancer in the next generations. An early action to prevent the inheritance of those defected genes will make the future generations healthy and makes them free of the disease. Moreover, we are using genetically developed plants to have more production and disease resistant. If they are ethical to help mankind with more food and vegetation, it is ethical to prevent a baby from acquiring an inherited disease. However, in preventing the genetically inherited diseases, the knowledge of genetics brings to the fore the different diseases that different races have in their genes to transmit to their future generations. This may result in racial differentiation between the people, but that requires the development of holistic moral values in the minds of people to think above the racial differences as every race has its own genetic disorders. For example, Tay-Sachs disease is termed as Jewish gene and by preventing that defect affecting the baby can make the future generations free of that diseases and slowly a whole race will be free of that disease. Hence, the genetic medicine helps the human race to transform into a healthy species that is free of racial differences as the technological advances in genetics and their applications can result in eradication of racially particular diseases. 10 As we discussed about genetic cure and avoidance of diseases, it is important to note that experimentation is a necessity to develop genetic medicine. In the context of experimentation the ethicalness of the experimentations and dignity of volunteers and the voluntary nature in their decision comes to the fore. Considering the donation of embryos by the people who do not need them, the dignity of the donors is important. The foremost thing about dignity of the donors is that they should be informed about the nature of the experiments conducted on their embryos, so that they can decide about the donation of their embryos. In addition to that awareness is necessary to make people and donors about the dignity and ethicalness of the donors, volunteers and experimentation. One important aspect in treating persons is to avoid the volunteers used in the experiment as mere means and tools of science. Normally, the above aspect arises when prisoners, children and other ignorant people are used for experimentation. As they do not have enough knowledge about the genetic experimentation results and consequences on them, the research objective cannot be supported irrespective how important is it is to society as it does not ensure the dignity of volunteers in the experimentation. The important aspect that supports the dignity of volunteers in experimentation is that the results of experiments that ignored human dignity cannot stand for ethical values in medical science and can be used for unethical and inhuman deeds that pose challenge to humanity as human dignity is above all the moral values of science and humanity. 11 Considering the economic deprivation of the patients that avoids the patients to avail the benefits of medical science, the research should concentrate on the ways and means that can offer treatments for different diseases in an economical manner. The research regarding the addressing of the problems caused due to social and economic deprivation should be about developing immunity in human beings towards those diseases. However, the economic deprivation of the patients can be addressed by the treatment methods that make possible the treatment of disease economically. As the economically deprived patients benefit from the vaccines or other methods that can avoid the possible diseases, the research regarding creating vaccines for the diseases, which are costly to treat can be helpful for economically deprived classes to lead life in a healthy manner. Hence, the research methods should concentrate on producing vaccines for the diseases that are costly to treat and should create treatment methods that are economical as well. Works Cited Brannigan, Michael C.(Editor). Ethical Issues in Human Cloning. New York, NY, USA: Seven Bridges Press, LLC, 2001. Retrieved on September 23, 2008 from . Currie, Dawn H.(Editor). Anatomy of Gender : Women's Struggle for the Body. Montreal, PQ, CAN: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1992. Retrieved on September 22, 2008 from . Institute of Medicine Staff. Assessing Genetic Risks : Implications for Health and Social Policy. Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press, 1994. September 28, 2008 . Nova Online, Modern Hipporatic Oath, Nova Onlilne, USA: pbs.org, 1995-2008, Retrieved on September 22 2008 from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/doctors/oath_modern.html Siegel, Reva B.,The Right's Reasons: Constitutional Conflict and the Spread of Woman-Protective Antiabortion Argument. Duke Law Journal, Forthcoming Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1120502 Somerville, Margaret A. Death Talk : The Case Against Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide. Montreal, PQ, CAN: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002. p 101. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/nulibraries/Docid=10132754&ppg=121 Thomasma, David C. Asking to Die: Inside the Dutch Debate about Euthanasia. Hingham, MA, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998, Retrieved on September 22, 2008 from . Voneky, Silja(Editor). Human Dignity and Human Cloning. Leiden, , NLD: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2004. Retrieved on September 24, 2008 from . Wailoo, Keith. Troubled Dream of Genetic Medicine : Ethnicity and Innovation in Tay-Sachs, Cystic Fibrosis, and Sickle Cell Disease. Baltimore, MD, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. September 28, 2008 . Zalewski, Marysia. Feminism after Postmodernism : Theorising Through Practice. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. Retrieved on September 23, 2008 from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/nulibraries/Docid=2002470&ppg=139 Read More