VTS Functions, Responsibilities and Procedures - Essay Example

1.0 Research Approach 2 1 Aim 2 2 Research Question 3 3 Methodology 3 Introduction 3 2 Background 4 2.2 Definitions 5 2.2 Surveilled VTS 5 2.2.2 Non-Surveilled VTS 5 2.3 Historical Overview 6 2.4 Report Structure 12 3.0 VTS Functions, Responsibilities and Procedures 12 3.1 Responsibilities and Functions 12 3.2 VTS Services and Service Delivery Method 14 4.0 Discussion and Recommendations 19 4.1 Developing and Testing Situation Awareness 20 4.1.1 Perception of elements in the current situation 21 4.1.2 Comprehension of current situation 22 4.1.3. Projection of future status 22 4.2 Measuring Situation Awareness 24 Conclusion 28 6.0 References 28 1.0 Research Approach 1.1 Aim The primary aim of the research is the determination of the qualifications which Vessel Traffic Service operators and personnel should possess. Hughes (1998) opines that other than a sound knowledge of the software system used, VTS operators do not need any other qualifications. In so arguing, Hughes (1998) identifies the implemented technology, both hardware and software, as the primary determinant of any given port's ability and capacity to execute the responsibilities particular to VTS, somewhat de-contextualising the human factor. While Hughes (1998) is not entirely incorrect, he is not correct either. Certainly, as Maio (1991) argues, technology is a major determinant of a port's capacity to execute the functions and responsibilities associate with VTS and, technological limitations ultimately delimit the capacity to efficiently and effectively execute the stated responsibilities. Nevertheless, the human factor is integral as VTS is ultimately all about human-machine interaction. The qualifications of operators, thus, extends beyond the ability to work with the system and correctly interpret data output to include, more often than not, crisis management and critical decision-making under pressure. There is little room for human error (Maio, 1991). In consideration of the somewhat divergent points of view presented in the preceding paragraph, the primary aim of the present study is the analysis and articulation of VTS operator and personal qualifications, alongside a determination of the extent to which the failure to satisfy these qualifications adversely bears upon a port's capacity to execute its VTS responsibilities. 1.2 Research Question Within the context of the functions of Vessel Traffic Service and the systems used for the monitoring of waterway traffic and the maintenance of safety, what characteristics and qualifications should VTS operators possess 1.3 Methodology As a strategy for responding to the selected researched question and satisfying the research's articulated aim, an in-depth investigative exploration of radar technology, coastal radar systems, and the requirements of coastal radar surveillance shall be undertaken. The results of the investigation shall determine the optimal coastal radar surveillance system(s). Introduction Prior to presenting the data upon which the discussion pertaining to the research question shall be based, it is necessary to contextualize the report's focus. This shall be done through a review of the role which Vessel Traffic Service play in the promotion of waterway safety, the strategies by which vessel traffic is monitored and safety maintained, an historical analysis of its development and the articulation of its responsibilities and tasks of VTS operators. 2.1 Background The provision of traffic services is integral to the maintenance of minimum safety levels in all forms of transportation. This is especially true for vessel traffic and, more so in busy waterways. The reason as Nuutinen, Savioja and Sonninen (2005) contend lies in the fact that the mismanagement of vessel traffic in busy waterways results in both environmental and human catastrophe. Vessel traffic management, in other words, is of unique and critical importance. Further to that, it is also extremely complex and complicated, requiring a degree of data precision and accuracy which can only be attained through the establishment of a rather complex surveillance and information communication and relay network. Fortunately, however, and as Anzano (1999) confirms, the technology is available and, importantly, in a state of continued improvement, development and evolution. Within the context of the stated, therefore, the question is not whether available technologies allow for the efficient and effective execution of VTS duties and responsibilities but whether the personal and operators therein are capable of exploiting the system to its full potential and, indeed, whether the system itself facilitates human-interaction. As directly pertains to he issues and questions highlighted in the foregoing, pending the presentation of all of definitions, historical overviews and technological requirements for VTS, the study shall expound upon operator and personnel qualifications. 2.2 Definitions Vessel Traffic Service, or VTS, is a system which provides for the active and continued monitoring of vessels in confined and/or busy waterways, allowing for the extension of such navigational advice as would ensure vessel safety. There are two types of VTS systems, each of which shall be defined separately. 2.2.1 Surveilled VTS Surveilled VTS systems are comprised of at least one land-based sensor, such as a Radio Detection and Ranging (RADAR) system, an Automatic Identification System (AIS), and/or Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) site. One or more of the mentioned systems survey a specified waterway and transmit surveillance information to a central location for processing, review and evaluation. The output signals are, in other words, transmitted to VTS operators whose responsibility it is to guide vessels and provide navigational advice when, and whenever, needed (Kroeburger, 1986). 2.2.2 Non-Surveilled VTS Within the context of a non-surveilled VTS system, traffic monitoring is not carried out through the use of the surveillance systems identified in the preceding. Instead, ships are required to report their identity, course, speed and all relevant data to the monitoring authority/point in question. Non-surveilled VTS systems may not exploit the land-based sensor technologies particular to Surveilled VTS systems but they, nevertheless, exploit a wide range of technologies which are specifically aimed to ensure the prevention of vessel collisions, vessel groundings in the harbour and ramming. Indeed, they are particularly well-suited for the facilitation of ship movements, the expedience of transportation system efficiency and the improvement of vessel transport and trafficking capabilities, irrespective of weather conditions (Kristiansen, 1995). 2.3 Historical Overview Vessel Traffic Services are popularly regarded as having originated in Liverpool in 1949. It was at this location and at this time that the concept of the management of vessels through a shore-side station was first development and implemented. Netherlands, however, was the first country to employ radar systems for VTS functions. In 1959 it design and implemented a comprehensive VTS system at Rotterdam Port, reliant upon radar surveillance. From that point onwards, VTS systems were adopted by practically every major port in Western Europe, signalling an acknowledgement of the imperatives of managing incoming vessel traffic for the explicit avoidance of collision and other such accidents (Kristiansen). In sharp contrast to the Western European experience, the United States' Coastguard delayed in the adoption of VTS systems. A VTS system did not make its appearance in the United States until 1968 and, even then, it was a byproduct of a 1968 research and development project which had been conducted at San Francisco Bay called Harbor Advisory Service. As the name suggests, however, it was a voluntary service in that navigational advice was only offered to vessels upon requests or vessels which had voluntarily signed up to the service. Needles to say it was both inefficient and quite ineffective for two reasons. The first is that, as a research project it was not identified as responsible for traffic management, nor did it avail itself of the technologies requisite for the execution of the responsibilities associate with VTS. In the second place, as a voluntary, not mandatory, programmed, vessels were not oblige to report their position, speed and other such relevant data as would allow for effective traffic management. Consequently, 1968 emerges as a very tentative date for the introduction and implementation of a VTS system in the United States (van Dorp, et. al., 2001). The United States, as Larsen (1993) explains, only recognized the imperatives of implementing VTS systems in its busier and more confined waterways following a disastrous and, even more importantly, avoidable accident in San Francisco Bay. On the 18th January, 1971, the Arizona Standard and the Oregon Standard, two renown tankers, collided with one another just under the Golden Gate Bridge. The media coverage which the accident received was largely fuelled by the fact that, in retrospect, the accident was so unequivocally avoidable that it was popularly perceived of, by both naval experts and laymen alike, as unnecessary. The resultant public furor incited the adoption of two maritime safety acts which led to the implementation of VTS systems across the nation's more significant ports. These are the Bridge to Bridge Radiotelephone Act and the Ports and Waterways Safety Act. The US Coast Guard derives its authority to design, build, and implement VTS systems from the latter. Indeed, drawing upon the Ports and Waterways Safety Act, the U.S. coast Guard obliges all vessels entering US territorial waters to carry such technological devices as would allow for participation in VTS systems (Larsen, 1993). It is as a direct outcome of the aforementioned that the United States now runs some of the world's most advanced VTS systems, despite its earlier retardation. Figure 1: VTS Locations in the U.S On the international level, the history of VTS can be traced back to 1968. At that time, the International Maritime Organisation adopted Resolution, A.158(ES.IV), entitled Recommendation On Port Advisory Services. The aforementioned Resolution provided for the outlines of a VTS system and emphasised the imperatives of the mandatory participation of vessels in vessel trafficking, monitoring and safety systems. In 1985, the IMO followed with the adoption of Resolution A.587(14) entitled Guidelines for Vessel Traffic Services. On the 27th November, 1997, and primarily consequent to increased international vessel traffic levels, implying an increased urgency for more strongest safety procedures, the IMO adopted Resolution A.857 (20), "Guidelines for Vessel Traffic Services" and its associated Annexes 1 and 2, "Guidelines and Criteria for VTS" and "Guidelines on Recruitment, Qualifications and Training of VTS Operators". The stated resolution and its associate annexes can best be identified as a turning point in VTS' history, insofar as the responsibilities and duties of governments towards vessel trafficking was emphasised and, indeed, their liability for the failure to adopt a VTS system was emphasised. In other words, as of November 1997, governments were held responsible for the adoption of vessel trafficking services and, indeed, for ensuring that such procedures as would maximise vessel safety were implemented. It is quite interesting to note that from 1997 onwards, there is a discernible concern with the qualifications of VTS operators, in direct acknowledgement of the seminal role they play in ensuring the efficient and effective operation of VTS systems. Hence, in Annex 2 of Resolution A.857 (20), the requisite qualifications of VTS operators are outlined. Further to that, in December 1998, the IALA Council adopted Recommendation (V-103) on "Standards for Training and Certification of VTS Personnel". As per the stated recommendation, member states and the relevant authorities within are expected and required to provide VTS operators with the training and education outlined in the previously mentioned Annex for assurance that VTS certified personnel are capable of exploiting VTS systems to their maximum capacity and, in so doing, allow for the effective and efficient monitoring of vessel traffic, with the emphasis being on safety. Recommendation V-103, as defined and discussed in the preceding paragraph, was submitted to IMO and in May 2000 the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) issued Circular 952, in which they have "invited Member Governments to bring the IALA Recommendation and model courses to the attention of their VTS authorities when considering training and certification of VTS personnel". Again, on 13 December 2002, Circular 1065 was issued. Entitled IALA Standards for Training and Certification of Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) Personnel, this document emphasises the responsibility of member governments and other authorities in the training of VTS personnel and ensuring their possession of the requisite qualifications. Two very important points may be deduced from the foregoing, albeit brief, historical overview of VTS systems. The first is that despite its short history, there has been a near universal acknowledgement of the imperatives of its adoption for the purposes of vessel trafficking safety, especially given that increased vessel traffic in confined waterways, not to mention in the busier of the world's ports, can lead to avoidable accidents. The second is that the successful exploitation of the system is ultimately dependant upon operator and VTS personal qualifications. Within the limits of the technology in use, the full potential of VTS systems can only be realised if VTS personnel and operators have the requisite education and training, hence, qualifications. Figure 2: London VTS Centre Figure 3: Singapore VTS Centre 2.4 Report Structure The report shall be comprised of five sections. The first shall introduce the research's aims, question and selected investigative methodology and the second shall overview the background, definition and history of VTS systems. The third section of the report shall present the purposes, responsibilities of VTS systems and overview the technology through which the mentioned are executed. The fourth section of the report shall outline responsibilities of VTS operators and the qualifications identified as integral to the efficient and effective operation of VTS systems. The fifth and final section shall discuss the study's findings and present a set of recommendations, in response to both the research aims and question. 3.0 VTS Functions, Responsibilities and Procedures As may have been deduced from the foregoing discussion, VTS systems are, on the one hand, inherently complex and, on the other, required to perform an unequivocally intrinsic role in the maintenance of vessel traffic safety and the prevention of collision and other such accidents. The responsibility of VTS systems and the procedures and functions through and by which it is executed, shall be presented in this section of the study. 3.1 Responsibilities and Functions VTS systems have a single responsibility. That responsibility is the maximization of vessel safety upon entry into busy and confined waterways and ports. The identification of a single responsibility should not obscure the complexity and complicated nature of its execution. Indeed, in order to ensure vessel safety and safeguard the area in question, VTS systems have three foundational responsibilities or tasks. These are data collection, data evaluation and data dissemination (Filipowicz, 2004). The use of the said data, or the interrelationship between these defined responsibilities and vessel traffic management and safety is presented in the figure below: Figure 4: Exchange of Data/Information 3.2 VTS Services and Service Delivery Method The VTS recognized maritime picture (RMP) is compiled and collected by means of advanced sensors such as Radar, AIS, Direction Finding, CCTV and VHF or other co-operative systems and services. A modern VTS integrated all of the information in to a single operator working environment for ease of use and in order to allow for effective traffic organization and communication (Vessel Navigation, 1996). A VTS should always have a comprehensive 'traffic image' which means that all factors influencing the traffic as well as information about all participating vessels and their intentions should be readily available. By means of the traffic image, situations that are developing can be evaluated and responded upon. The data evaluation depends to a great extent on the quality of the data that is collected and the ability of the operator to combine this with an actual or developing situation. The data dissemination process exists of conveying the conclusions of the operator. In essence, there are three methods/strategies for doing so, each of which shall be separately defined and presented in the below (Vessel Navigation, 1996). 3.2.1 Information Service Information services refer to the provision of such information to vessels which withstand independent checking by the vessels in question. In other words, the VTS operator is not offering the vessel, or vessel master, navigational, or other, advice but is extending him/it the information required to reach conclusions and decisions. Customarily, however, the information which a VTS operator provides, especially if it is comprehensively and clearly delivered, can be interpreted as suggesting a specified course of action (Vessel Navigation, 1996). 3.2.2 Navigational Assistance Service There are two scenarios for the extension of navigational assistance services by VTS operators to vessels and/or vessel masters. The first is when, and if vessels and/or vessel masters request such assistance. The second is when the VTS operator, on the basis of the data before him/her, deems the provision of such assistance to be necessary. Navigational Service Assistance is information which relates to a specific vessel and is intended for that specific vessel. It may, and quite often does, contain warnings and advice. It is not, however, intended to direct the course to be steered or to issue engine orders. In extending Navigational Service Assistance, the VTS operator becomes an intrinsic player in the on-board options being discussed and the decision finally arrived at. VTS operators do so through the provision of information on the vessel's course, on its position relative to fairway axis or waypoints and on the vessel's position relative to surrounding traffic (Filipowicz, 2004). In other words, within the context of Navigational Assistance Service, the information/data relayed functions as the foundation for navigational decisions with the VTS operator acting as an integral party in the decision-making framework. 3.2.3 Traffic Organization Traffic Organisation is one of the more important of the services extended by VTS systems and operators. Traffic Organisation services are specifically aimed at the prevention of the development of dangerous situations through the provision of safe and efficient movement for vessels within the designated VTS area. It is fundamentally concerned with the pre-planning of vessel movement for the efficient management of VTS space and, accordingly, is particularly important within congested ports or in times of congestion as well as in instances where the movement of special vessels into the VTS area will affect the flow and movement of traffic therein. Within the context of the stated, the monitoring of vessel traffic, the enforcement of vessel traffic and movement rules and regulations, and the communication of existent traffic conditions and vessel positions and speeds to VTS participants, are integral to the delivery of efficient and effective vessel trafficking services. In addition to the above stated, the delivery of effective and efficient Traffic Organisation services is often contingent upon the operation of a traffic clearance system. Traffic clearance systems include all of the allocation of space, the mandatory reporting of movements, the establishment of routes to be followed, the setting of the speed limits to be followed and any other measures which VTS operators may consider appropriate. It is important to emphasise here that the traffic-clearance instructions which the VTS authority communicates to vessels, as with other traffic organisation instructions, have to be result-oriented. The implication here is that while the VTS authority tells the vessel what needs to be done, as in the result expected, it leaves the vessel master the details of the execution. The successful operation of traffic organisation tasks is dependant upon two factors. The first is efficient communication between the VTS authority of the vessels and the second is the acceptance of VTS by shipmaster and officers and their consequent cooperation with it. To facilitate this acceptance, the parameters of the relationship between VTS operators and shipmaster and officials should be clearly delineated. To this extent, a VTS operator should never consider himself to be conducting / piloting the vessel; that is the task of the master. However if his education is at least at the same level of the master then a situation of mutual trust is easily established. Figure 5: VTS Operational Structure Having mentioned the centrality of the VTS operator to the efficient functioning of VTS systems, not to mention their acceptance by shipmasters and officers, it is therefore, evident that the VTS operator should possess certain characteristics and qualifications as would enable their efficient and effective execution of their duties and responsibilities. As such, the next section shall discuss the VTS operator and the required performance levels, 4.0 Discussion and Recommendations VTS operators are well trained professionals with a maritime background, which can be either civilian or naval. This background ensures that VTS operators are well aware of manoeuvring abilities of ships, and that they can "think together" with captains and navigators aboard ships. Extensive simulator training with equipment and communication protocols, as well as on-the-job training is used to establish a high level of professional competence among VTS operators. Obligatory triennial qualification examinations ensure that this level of competence is maintained and that VTS operators keep up with new developments in equipment and (communication) procedures. The role of VTS operators in traffic is more informing and advising than controlling, because ships have a large freedom in accepting or rejecting orders given by VTS. Awareness of manoeuvring possibilities of ships and communication with traffic are therefore of utmost importance. In training and qualification examinations a strong emphasis is placed on the communication skills of VTS operators. However, focus on communication and communication protocols constitute a one-sided view of the issue. In order to ensure that operators are able to accurately assess situations and have a thorough understanding of the traffic situation, it is imperative that they possess a high level of situation awareness. This section of the report focuses on the presentation of the study's recommendations pertaining to operator qualifications and the training and assessment strategies which may be deployed in order to ensure that they possess the requisite levels of situation awareness. 4.1 Developing and Testing Situation Awareness Recently the concept of situation awareness has been put forward as an objective measure of the understanding of supervisory situations, such as VTS. Developed in military aviation over two decades ago, situation awareness has since been applied in numerous fields of application, varying from Air Traffic Control , weather services and medicine. Accordingly to Endsley, situation awareness may be defined as, in this case, the level of a VTS operator's awareness, not just of the traffic situation but, of the environmental factors which may potentially affect the traffic situation. It does not, however, simply mean an awareness of the situation per se but a full understanding of the implications of the various elements which define a situation, and their potential consequences to vessels. More importantly, it is imperative that the VTS operator have the capacity to communicate his/her awareness of he situation to the shipmaster in such terms as would evoke the latter's confidence in the former and, thereby, facilitate cooperation. The importance of the aforementioned cannot be overemphasised in light of the earlier stated fact regarding the freedom which shipmaster's exercise in accepting or rejecting VTS operator recommendations. Endsely's (1996) definition of situation awareness concedes to, and emphasises the import of all of the above stated. He, however, perceives of situation awareness of being comprised of three levels and, therefore, each shall be discussed in relation to the report's recommendations. 4.1.1 Perception of elements in the current situation Within the contextual parameters of the first level, the state of the environment which has to be supervised can be defined as a large collection of different parameters with specific, momentary, values. These values, as in wind speed, ship position, ship speed and traffic situation are measured in as precise figures as possible at any given time but, they are constantly changing. Awareness of the elements, the values, which define the current situation, therefore, is predicated, not only on the ability of the operator to access the information in question but be able to evaluate and comprehend it for the purposes of his/her obtaining a comprehensive mental picture of the elements in the current situation, for the purposes of communicating this information to the shipmaster. Proceeding from the above stated, it is evident that the first level of awareness is predicated on a number of factors. These are (1) the presence of the equipment requisite and the (2) VTS operator's own ability to interpret this information. Hence, the recommendations at this stage are operator qualifications to operate the VTS equipment and interpret the data. 4.1.2 Comprehension of current situation Numerous state parameters in the environment will be related by causal mechanisms. In any given situation some of these mechanisms are latent and others are active in effecting the way state parameters change over time. Comprehension of the situation is integral to the operator's capacity to accurately assess the current situation and attain a comprehensive understanding of it. It is therefore, recommended that operators be trained in the assessment of data quality, as in accuracy and relevancy, prior to his or her actually engaging in data interpretation for the purpose of arriving at a mental picture which he/she will subsequently communicate to the shipmaster. In other words, a VTS operator must be able to identify the data which is relevant to the current situation, determine the accuracy of that data and, more importantly be able to use that data for the arrival at a mental picture of the current situation. Needless to say, this requires substantial training, with simulations emerging as the optimal medium for doing so. 4.1.3. Projection of future status The third level of situation awareness is, quite probably, both the most important and the most complicated. Not only are VTS operators required to assess current situations on the basis of existing data but they are expected to use that data to determine how the situation will likely change in the immediate or near future. The capacity of operators to project the future status depends, naturally, upon the available VTS equipment, on the one hand and, his/her qualifications on the other. Indeed, the degree to which a VTS operator is able to attain the third level of awareness is further dependant on the extent to which he attained the second level of awareness as the data exploited in the latter is used to inform the former. Apart from concrete data leading to the identification of the values governing and characterising a particular situation, the operator must have predictive abilities. The implication here is that, following the assessment of the data regarding the current situation and pending an analysis of data regarding expected weather and port traffic situations, the operator must formulate a number of possible scenarios regarding future situational development and then select the one which appears to be the most feasible. The importance of future situation predications is immediately linked to the operator's ability to make decisions and execute his/her decision-making functions, pertaining to the advice offered shipmasters. The point here is that the attainment of this level of situation awareness is as important as the attainment of the first. Accordingly, it is further recommended that simulation training requirements be expanded to include both current and future situation awareness. 4.2 Measuring Situation Awareness It is recommended that VTS operators be required to take periodic tests whose purpose is the measurement of their situation awareness. The situation awareness measurement methodology recommended for general use is SATEST. The SATEST was specifically development as a means for determining, or assessing the levels of VTS operators' situation awareness. They are primarily, or most widely used in VTS operator training centres in Rotterdam and are an integral component of the VTS operator qualification examination. SATEST exams are, naturally, executed using simulators but, the important thing to stress here is that the simulator in question is comprised of a complete VTS operator terminal and is further linked to a vast and comprehensive maritime traffic simulator. In other words, apart from the fact that students are supplied with an operational VTS terminal, they are extended the same volume and type of data which VTS operators are given, or which they have access to. Hence, the simulator in question has a countless range of realistic scenarios pertaining to all of vessel, weather, tide and water (river or sea flows and currents) behaviour. Added to that, the selection of a wide range of both imaginary and real maritime areas is selected and, if a particular port is not located on the simulator, it guides one towards the VTS area which most closely resembles the specifics of that which is not available. Traffic movement, flows and congestion levels are all derived from real-time events/scenarios and, accordingly, is pre-programmed. A ghost operator functions as the supposed shipmaster, enabling oral communication with ships. Added to that, the manual operation of ships within the simulated scenario is also possible. The advantage of using SATEST for the evaluation of operator situation awareness levels is multi-fold. In the first place, the system in question stands out as unique insofar as it is the only one which is programmed with the quality and volumes of data requisite for testing within dozens of VTS situation. In the second place, as the average length of each scenario runs to about 45 minutes, it allows for the comprehensive testing of situational awareness. In the third place, it is rigorous enough so as to expose operators to various situations, all of which are derived from real-world ones. Within the context of SATEST, operators sit for 45 minute situations wherein a number of conflict situations happen. It is the responsibility of the operators to assess the situation, through all three situation awareness levels, subsequent to which he/she must make and execute conflict-avoidance decisions. At different junctures in the simulation, the simulation is halted and the operator being tested is confronted with a number of questions relevant to the VTS situation at hand. These responses are entered onto a computer score form. The first set of questions asked pertains to the VTS area. Operators are provided with a map, on which they are required to draw in the precise position of each vessel in the area and through a vector indicator, denote the speed and course of each and every one. This form, or map, is depicted in the figure below: Figure 6: SATEST form for the Description of Vessel Traffic Situation The second set of questions which the VTS operators being tested are required to respond to pertains to individual ships. In other words, after noting down the position of each ship, the operator positions his mouse on each one of these ships and clicks. Upon clicking, a second form appears, asking a set of questions specific to the ship. These include the ship's name, its origin, its intended destination, its speed and any other commentaries or remarks whose notation the operator judges to be important. In addition the form described in the above, a second relating to a third set of question presets itself upon the executing of the clicking function mentioned in the above. This form relates to potential conflicts and questions revolve around conflict details. An example of these two forms is depicted in the below: Figure 7: SATEST form for Vessel Details and potential Conflict The totality of the forms which the operator fills out allows a thorough insight into his/her awareness and understanding of the VTS situation at hand. More importantly, they indicate awareness of potential conflict and the operator's response to them, as in his scenarios for conflict prevention, diffusion or resolution. Given the comprehensive nature of the SATEST and in light of the centrality of VTS operators to the efficient and effective functioning of VTS systems, the adoption of SATEST for the training of VTS operators is recommended. Added to that, it is further recommended that licensed, or authorised operator skills be periodically tested through SATEST. Conclusion On the basis of the foregoing report, it is possible for one to present a set of conclusions at this point. The first of these is that as important as is technology to VTS systems, VTS operators are no less important. Indeed, they are central to the efficient and effective functioning of VTS systems. Building upon the aforementioned, the second conclusion is that, both VTS operator training and continued periodic assessment of their situation awareness is essential. The third and final conclusion pertains to the imperatives of the adoption of SATEST in VTS operator training, education and licensing centers and institutions. 6.0 References Anzano, E.S. (1999) Fuzzy Clustering Means Algorithm for Track Fusion in U.S. Coast Guard Vessel Traffic Services Systems. Monterey: Naval School of Monterey. Endsley, M.R. (1996) Direct measurement of situation awareness in simulations of dynamic systems: Validity and use of SAGAT. In: Garland, D.J. and Endsley, M.R (eds.) Experimental analysis and measurement of situation awareness. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Press, Daytona Beach FI. USA., 107-114. Filipowicz, W. (2004) Vessel Traffic Service problems.' Journal of Navigation, 57, 15-24. Hughes, T., 1998. Vessel traffic services (VTS): are we ready for the new millennium Journal of Navigation, 3, 404-420. Kristiansen, S., "An approach to systematic learning from accidents", IMAS 1995 IMarE Conference, Vol. 107 No. 2, Paper No. 11, 1995. Kroeburger, C. (1986) Vessel Traffic Systems. NY: Cornell Maritime Press. Larsen, O.D. (1993) Ship Collision with Bridge. Switzerland: Taylor and Francis. Maio, D. (1991) Port Needs Study; Benefits of vessel Traffic Services. National information Technical Services. Nuutinen, M., Savioja, P. and Sonninen, S. (2005) Challenges of developing the complex socio-technical system: Realising the present, acknowledging the past, and envisaging the future of vessel traffic services.' Applied Ergonomics, 10. Port Skill and Safety (2004) Vessel Traffic Service Operations. http://www.portskillsandsafety.co.uk/system/filesfile=NOS%20for%20Harbour%20Masters.pdf van Dorp, J. R., et al. (2001). A risk management procedure for the Washington State Ferries, Risk Analysis, 21( 1). Read More