The Method of Psychoanalysis - Essay Example

26 September 2006 Psychoanalysis Introduction Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory and a psychotherapeutic method developed by Sigmund Freud. Its basic premise states that human beings function at a conscious or unconscious level and most psychological problems can be traced to unresolved conflicts simmering below the level of consciousness. The relevance of childhood events to healthy functioning and future behavior is emphasized. According to J. Schwartz, "The 'discovery of unconscious' and the development of psychoanalytic method as a form of 'scientific' inquiry heralded the birth of modern psychology and stands as one of the intellectual milestones of the twentieth century" (qtd. in Jeffrey Magnavita 72). From the onset, psychoanalysis was plagued by controversy and severe criticism, yet it continued to grow and evolve in leaps and bounds. It was a radical departure from the prevailing schools of psychological thought and as such it took the world by storm with its groundbreaking theories. The main criticism leveled at psychoanalysis and its founder is the excessive and unnecessary emphasis on sex. This preoccupation with sex on the part of Freud may be attributed to his having been raised in a repressive society where frank sexual expression was taboo. Freud has also been accused of sexism and his theory of "penis envy" caused much furor and outrage particularly among the feminists. But in the words of Westen, "if you grow up in a culture where men are so privileged, it's easy to see how he could arrive at that" (qtd. in Marilyn Elias 10). Finally the scientific integrity of psychoanalysis has been questioned and many feel that what parades as fact is often mere speculation. However criticisms aside, psychoanalysis remains one of the most insightful and relevant systems for attempting to explore and understand the human psyche. Theories of Psychoanalysis Freud's most important contribution to the field of psychology is his work pertaining to the concept of the unconscious. Westen found that, "Before him, nobody realized that our conscious mind is the tip of the mental iceberg" (qtd. in Elias 10). Freud formulated his theories on the unconscious following his collaboration with Charcot and later Breuer on hysteria and hypnosis respectively. He adopted free association and dream interpretation as his preferred techniques and from consequent findings he laid the foundation for psychoanalysis. Goldenson says, "The theory of dynamic psychology developed by Sigmund Freud, is based primarily on the influence of unconscious forces such as repressed impulses, internal conflicts, and early traumas on the mental life and adjustment of the individual" (qtd. in Magnavita 76). The Structural Components of the Psychic State Freud described the structure of the psyche by means of "developmental progressions" that involve "id, ego, and superego, which are 'systems', not actual entities or structures" (Don Baucum 154). These systems are the structural components of the psyche and an understanding of their innate functioning affords a valuable insight into the subtle and infinitely complex machinations of the human mind. Development progresses from the id which is the receptacle of basic, primeval, biological needs, mainly the sex drive and aggression. Motivation stems from the id and is propelled by either the life instinct (Eros) or the death instinct (Thanatos). The id operates on the pleasure principle and its purpose is to give vent to the drive that seeks the acquisition of unadulterated pleasure and the avoidance of pain. The ego develops from the id which is present at birth itself usually following the remonstrations of parents when the child is naughty. It attempts to hold the wilder excesses of the id in check by providing harmless, socially acceptable outlets for its irrepressible energy and need. It functions on the basis of the reality principle. The individual remains grounded in reality thanks to the ego. In the words of Magnavita, "The ego works in conjunction with the id, attempting to balance impulses but also using the energy to provide drive, creativity, and motivation" (80). The superego represents the moral agency and value system of the individual, gleaned from parents and society. It has strict principles for governing behavior and if the individual fails to comply it induces guilt designed to taint the pleasure sought by the id. The ego maintains a delicate balance between these extreme forces. If the balance were to tilt dangerously in favor of either the id or the superego the mental health of the individual will be impaired. The Psychosexual Stages Freud focused on the oral, anal and phallic stages. He was of the opinion that the basic foundation of personality is laid down by the age of six and he believed development encompasses these three stages. For the newborn baby the mouth is the means used to communicate with the world. It is used for sucking, uttering cries and tasting. Therefore Freud called this stage oral. In the second and third years the child gains some form of control over its muscles and uses these to exert itself. The subsequent struggle to exert authority between parent and child is manifested in toilet training. According to David Lester, "The parents want the child to defecate in a toilet rather than in diapers, and to go at appropriate times, whereas the child does not always want to do so" (18). Freud called this the anal stage. From ages 3 to 6 the child becomes painfully conscious of the sexes. Freud stated that become attracted to the opposite sex parent and see their father or mother as potential rivals for affection. Such forbidden feelings induce anxiety and guilt. This was called the Oedipus complex and in the case of girls Electra complex. Freud asserted that it is in this stage that girls experience the much reviled concept of penis envy. This stage is the phallic stage. After these stages there is the latency stage which lasts till puberty. Psychoanalysis as a rule usually concerns itself only with the three stages outlined above. Freud's psychosexual stages have undergone many revisions but it is Erik Erikson's modification which has stood the test of time. He described eight stages that encompass infancy, toddler Stage, early childhood and later stages. His aim was to demonstrate the development of identity as each individual traversed these stages coping with the conflicts it presented. Anthony Bateman and Jeremy Holmes state that, "Erikson's eight - stage developmental schema, emphasizing cultural as well as intrapsychic factors, has been very influential" (11). Anxiety Clara Thompson notes that "in every case of anxiety without exception Freud was able to demonstrate a history of disturbance in the current sexual life", and it was only later that "Freud's attention was drawn to the frequency of the appearance of neurotic symptoms in a patient also suffering from anxiety" (113 - 14). Lester, found that anxiety has two sources in Freudian theory of personality - "First, anxiety is aroused whenever desires are deprived More interestingly, we become anxious whenever an unconscious desire is stimulated and is in danger of becoming conscious" (15). In the former instance the id is thwarted and in the latter instance the rigid principles of the superego are threatened as unpalatable desires are aired. Human beings try to keep anxiety levels low, and this motivates their behavior. Lester says that it is the sheer complexity of this particular situation that prompts "bizarre choices that often make little sense to us" (15). In the words of Magnavita, "Freud's notion of anxiety include three basic categories: moral, realistic, and neurotic" (84). Moral anxiety occurs when the id is given too much license by the ego as a result of which the superego induces guilt. Realistic anxiety occurs when the individual feels threatened or at risk. Neurotic anxiety does not have a substantial basis and has a vague, disjointed quality. Freud attributed this sort of anxiety to the condition of neuroses. The Defense Mechanisms According to Holi et al. "Freud's identification and elaboration of many of the mechanisms of defense have added much to our understanding of personality and continues to influence our evolving understanding about the way defenses are used to adapt" (qtd. in Magnavita 85). It is possible to identify with many of the defense mechanisms mentioned by Freud as most individuals would have employed them at some point or the other to cope with difficult or traumatic situations. Denial, fantasy and acting out are the common ones used under duress. Repression is a defense mechanism most likely to be used in response to the moral censure of the superego. Here forbidden desires are buried deep in the unconscious and substituted at the conscious level by an acceptable desire. Displacement occurs when an individual is unable to express negative emotions like anger to the person responsible for incurring it. Therefore the anger is directed and expressed on an undeserving object or person. Sublimation refers to the continued and long-term use of displacement that is socially acceptable. For instance an individual may channel his excessive anger by making a career out of boxing. In reaction formation the desire that is outwardly manifested is the opposite of the original desire. Thus love and hate may often take on the attributes of the other. Schools of Psychoanalytic Thought Bateman and Holmes reveal that "Freud's ideas began to take hold among a group of progressive physicians and intellectuals who became the first psychoanalytic circle: Jung, Adler, Stekel, Abraham, Ferenczi, Jones and Rank" (7). These men were originally Freud's followers and used psychoanalytic theory to formulate their own theories which were at variance with the principles of psychoanalysis, much to the displeasure of Freud. Apparently the father of Psychoanalysis had his own weaknesses, insecurities and was not above petty, manipulative behavior. He set out to establish his theories on the unconscious and sexuality as scientific truths. He did not take kindly to criticism of his theories, therefore he expected his followers to support his theories and supplement it with research that backed his findings. Thus there were many defections from the hallowed inner precincts of Freudian psychoanalysis. These defectors set about propagating their own theories which had its roots in psychoanalytic theory. Carl Gustav Jung Initially Jung worked extensively with Freud but theoretical differences led to their parting. He became famous in his own right for his work on the collective unconscious and the concept of archetypes. He believed that the collective unconscious is shared by all humans and is inherited or wired into our brains. This concept helps explain behavior that occurs naturally without any particular training or learning. "Archetypes include common images, attitudes and concepts such as power symbolized as the sun or a lion" (Magnavita 96). Jung also introduced the concepts of introversion and extroversion to describe the manner people use to get acclimatized to their social settings. Alfred Adler Adler introduced individual psychology and described inferiority complex. He played down the role of instincts and stated that a child's relationship with the parents coupled with chosen goals serve as motivating factors that shape personality. He was of the opinion that people strive for superiority to compensate for their feelings of inadequacy and inferiority. Erik Erikson Erikson was a disciple of Freud and he did much to propagate the spread of psychoanalysis after Freud. It may be said that he sanitized psychoanalytic theory without veering too far from Freudian concepts, thereby making it more palatable for polite society. His psychosocial theory was widely accepted. Unlike Freud he did not focus solely on the darker side of human nature, and credited people for their ability to employ rational thought. Sandor Ferenczi Ferenczi's work is believed to be the forerunner of contemporary theories on trauma and the humanistic approach to psychology. In the words of Rachman, "It is now a matter of record that Ferenczi's clinical work and theoretical ideas were suppressed, censored, and removed from mainstream psychoanalysis", further he "was denounced by Freud, Ernest Jones, and Max Eitington as an emotionally sick person" (qtd. in Magnavita 97). He attempted to establish that sexual abuse of children resulted in trauma as opposed to unresolved Oedipal or Electra complex. He also attempted to expose and rectify the shortcomings of psychoanalysis. Melanie Klein Klein devised theories on child development following her work with children using her own technique derived from dream interpretation. Later she applied these findings to adults as well. Her work also centered on aggression and the death instinct. Her description of complex mental processes in infants is questionable but important nonetheless. Bateman and Holmes state that "Klein became a dominant figure and her ideas were extended by Bion, Segal, Winnicott, Rosenfeld, Joseph and others" (10). Later Psychoanalysts Karen Horney, Erich Fromm and Harry Stack Sullivan made valuable contributions to psychoanalysis. They are sometimes called neo-Freudians. According to Bateman and Holmes, "Horney was one of the pioneers of the feminist response to psychoanalysis" (12). She objected to Freud's theories about penis envy, and castration anxiety. Aside from that Horney worked extensively on the nature of neuroses, resulting from anxiety. She stated that anxiety could be alleviated by learning to adapt to society and environment. She believed that some individuals were disposed to basic anxiety and basic hostility stemming from childhood issues and if left unattended may result in extreme behavior. Fromm focused on the interaction and relationship between individuals and society. Therefore individuals must learn to adapt to the social environment. He also stated that individuals seek freedom and independence but find the prospect daunting. When freedom is misused it leads to poor functioning of the society at large and causes problems for the individual as well. His work on dream interpretation techniques has been lauded. Sullivan focused on interpersonal relationships in his studies. Heinz Kohut Kohut's self- psychology is believed to be the most significant contemporary incursion into the realms of classical psychoanalysis. Bateman and Holmes found that it "emphasizes deficit rather than conflict as the core of many modern ills, sees healthy narcissism as the foundation of good object relations rather than their antithesis, and highlights empathy and attunement rather than interpretation and insight as the curative fact in successful treatment" (12). His opinion as to the role of the analyst as something more than a blank slate became the topic of furious debate. He justified his stand by saying that times have changed and the social milieu has altered considerably since when Freud gave birth to psychoanalysis. Therefore this fact must be taken into consideration before treatment methods are advocated. The Contribution and Limitations of Psychoanalysis The most important contribution of psychoanalysis is its analysis of the unconscious and its recognition of its role in human behavior. It was also ahead of the other schools of psychology in acknowledging the role played by childhood events in shaping personality. It is useful in terms of the issues it deals with. "Questions like 'why did I dream that, why can't I hold down relationships, why do I have a problem with authority figures, how on earth did I forget to go to that dreaded appointment with the bank manager' are central to what the layperson wants from psychology, but hard to explain by other more scientific approaches" (Matt Jarvis 55). Another major contribution of psychoanalysis is the inroads it has made in understanding human behavior and in treating aberrations in mental health. Further "a psychoanalytic approach to psychosis can provide useful insights into psychotic processes, can help in the general understanding and management of psychosis, and occasionally is indicated as a specific treatment" (Bateman & Holmes 222). It may also be used to complement other psychological techniques. Critics of this approach have pointed out a number of limitations, and some of the points are valid.. It has been difficult to establish a scientific basis for its theories. Grunbaum has pointed out that "the idea of basing psychological theories on a small number of case studies is not scientifically valid" (qtd. in Jarvis 56). It has proved extremely difficult to test some of the concepts of psychoanalysis. It is a very narrow approach which sometimes obscures the bigger picture and unnecessarily complicates issues. It is important to keep the limitations of psychoanalysis in mind while using it as treatment. The Future Role of Psychoanalysis According to William Meissner, "Patterns of change having to do directly with the delivery and funding of healthcare resources and problems related to the place of psychoanalysis in organized psychiatry and medicine are creating pressures which inevitably influence patterns of psychoanalytic practice" (97). Such changes have reduced the relevance of psychoanalysis. For instance it is no longer necessary to possess a medical degree for analytic training, this has far-reaching consequences. Nowadays attempts are being made to make healthcare available for all particularly the economically downtrodden. Psychoanalysis is expensive and calls for lengthy, exhaustive sessions that are not economically feasible. Therefore in light of the existing scenario psychoanalysis may be given an increasingly smaller role in treatment. Psychopharmacology, biological diagnosis and treatment of mental issues and new age therapeutic measures have further whittled down the role of psychoanalysis. Therefore to adapt to this situation, "There is an urgent need in the contemporary state of the science and art for psychoanalysts to be more actively involved in other realms of psychotherapeutic effort. Than the strict practice of psychoanalysis itself" (Meissner 102). In the words of Reiser, "The role and centrality of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic training is diminishing" (qtd. in Meissner 106). Given this discouraging state of affairs, it is essential that some compromise is made and psychoanalytic methods and techniques be modified in keeping with the changing times. Psychoanalysis as a psychological discipline is under siege and its very existence is threatened. It is imperative that immense effort be concentrated towards the maintenance of psychoanalysis at a theoretical and practical level. The legacy of psychoanalysis is invaluable warts and all, and it would be unfortunate if it were relegated to a mere footnote in the history of psychology. Works Cited Bateman, Anthony, and Jeremy Holmes. Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Contemporary Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge, 1995. Baucum, Don. Psychology. New York: Barron's Education Series, 2000. Elias, Marilyn. "Freud: So Wrong and Yet So Right; Modern - Day Experts Analyze the Legacy of the Founder of Psychoanalysis." USA Today. 4 May 2006: 16. Jarvis, Matt. Theoretical Approaches in Psychology. New York: Routledge, 2000. Lester, David. Theories of Personality: A Systems Approach. Washington DC: Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. Magnavita, Jeffrey. Theories of Personality: Contemporary Approaches to the Science of Personality. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002. Meissner, William. "The Future Role of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic - Oriented Therapy." Challenge to Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy: Solutions for the Future. Eds. Lebovici, Serge and Stefan De Schill. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1999. 97- 108. Thompson, Clara. Psychoanalysis. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2003. Read More