Media and Technological Development - Essay Example

Introduction Communication in its simplest is defined as the transmission or exchange of ideas (Craig, 2000, para Communication is a vital key to development and permeates every aspect of life. An emerging theme in the study of communication is they stuffy of communication together with technology (para. 37). Technological development is redefining the mediums, channels and use of communication. Traditional communication theories are confronted with new modes and forms of communication technology is developing (para 38). Technology has contributed well into the creation of the mean of creating real time exchange of information across nations. The internet, satellites, optics and mobile technology are but ordinary elements of modern life (Willinsky, 1999). Communications and technology, taken separately, are both pervasive forces in society. They both influence each other but does either of them drive the other to the extent of defining its existence The theory of technological determinism states that technology is the major molding factor in how society progresses (Franklin, 1990). Technological Determinism in Review Technological determinism's central theme is that technology dictates how societies create themselves. It further suggests that the introduction of new technologies have a direct and permanent means of changing society (Craig, 2000). The Foundations of Technologically Determined Communication Marshall McLuhan is one of the proponents of the technological determinism theory. His work was inspired by Harold Innes and Lewis Mumford to study the effects of media on people and society. The first part of his theories tackles the uses of senses in the communication process. The second part of his theory involved the greater impact of the medium, which is greatly immersed with technological developments, versus the content of communication (Munday, 2002, para. 5, 6). The book "The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects", states that, "Before the invention of the phonetic alphabet, man lived in a world where all the senses were balanced and simultaneous, a closed world of tribal depth and resonance." (McLuhan, and Fiore, 1967, p. 245). This suggests that because of developments in technology, specifically through print and the phonetic alphabet communication, that the immediate transmission of thought is compromised as well as the social interaction involved in speech communication (Munday, 2002, para. 7). The implication is that communication need not be a directly social process and can be achieved with a degree of isolation. Another implication that was suggested was that the visual superseded auditory awareness as the sense essential for communication. It was further suggested that developments such as that of the printing press and mass media will fuel these developments. He points out to an ominous scenario of diminishing sensory perceptions and increasing social isolation Implications of Technological Determinism to Communications One of the reasons why technological determinism and communications have been brought up together is primarily because it figured prominently in McLuhan's theorization. Since communication involves the exchange of information and ideas, the level of efficiency and effectivity of the communication progress is indicative of the degree of organization and management there is in the society. In the context of today's life, technology and communication are even more intertwined as shown by the development of electronic media and communications. Technological Determinism in Critique Raymond Williams, together with Eric Hobsbawm, and E. P. Thompson became the important intellectuals of the Western World from 1965 to 1985 (Cowling, 1990 para. 1-2). In the 70's and 80's, Williams spoke regarding feminism, Welsh nationalism, the environment and the imperialism in the Third World (para. 5). He gained prominence publishing his book in 1958 entitled "Culture and Society: 1780-1950". He was a popular and prolific writer in the 1960's and used literature and history as central premises for his theories (para. 2-3). He has been the most noted of the critics of technological determinism. Though not as uncompromising as other critics as Jonathan Miller, Ben Lieberman or Dwight Macdonald, he, together with less forceful critic like James Carvey have been consistent in their assertions of McLuhan's encompassing technological deterministic theory (Munday 2002). Raymond Williams Critique of Technological Determinism Williams suggests that technology such as that of new communication systems are a product of multifaceted and intricate interactions of the elements of culture, society, politics, laws and regulations, politics, society and technology itself (Williams, 1974). Williams' theory suggests that technology can not be a single, central determinant to development or change rather that it is only a factor. He suggests that when a new medium of communication is introduced for use, it will create an impact to society by its presence through awareness, discussion or debate but will be unable by itself cause a change in the social order (1981). The new medium of communication creates new channels, modes and uses for communication for interaction of existing and developing elements in the society. In this model, the new media acts as an evolutionary force instead of a revolutionary one (1974). Williams writes in his book Keywords: Culture and Society that, changes in convention only occur when there are changes in the general structure of feeling.'' (1976). It can be said then that Williams indicates that the current development of technologies like online media and mobile communications are both foundations of change just as much they are products of it (1981). This has resulted to the conscious effort to research and develop technologies based on the needs and experience in society (1976). Therefore, technology is not a self-motivated force independent of society as is proposed by technological determinists. The research and application of technology is part of the natural progress of society as it develops its economy and culture. It is part of every modern society and is an intrinsic pursuit of development (1974). For example, understanding the significance of the development of online media can be better done by studying the economic and societal factors behind its development instead of its consequences. Therefore, online media is developing because of the demand for books and other literature electronically and not because of the development of e-books. Other Theories in Contrast to Technologically Determined Communication According to Munday (2002), Umberto Eco using Roman Jakobson's transmission model of communication points out to McLuhan's analysis regarding transmission in the communication process, "McLuhan's theses on the nature of media stem from the fact that he uses the term broadly, for phenomena that can be at times reduced to the Channel and at other times to the Code, or to the form of the message." (Eco 1987, p. 138). Emile Durkheim, one of the pillars and founders of the discipline of sociology, stated that "the social" as something autonomous and causally independent of such mechanical factors as technology (Hebding and Glick, 1992, pp. 8-10). Similar to Williams' stand is that of Ruth Finnegan who rejects the determinist influence of technology but recognizes its being a factor in change (Finnegan, 1975, pp. 69-77). Implications of a Non-Technological Determinism Understanding of Communications Understanding communications from a non-technological determinist's standpoint relegated technology as a factor of development that coincides with other elements of societal development. This model of study allows that society is not driven by technology but can be motivated by the implications of technology. In communications, this reflects the developments are motivated by the changing needs and demands of society. McLuhan feared that the development of phonetics has been detrimental to sensory perception specifically that of auditory communication. Current studies utilized by media developers shown that media that audio books are one of the promising industries in publishing today (Kawamoto, 2002; Schuler, 1996). On the issue of increased isolation, developments in communication have not factored in the trend and have even contributed to its determent to some extent with the proliferation of online groups, networks and electronic messaging. Applications of Williams' Critique One of the primary reasons why the technological determinist theory has been criticized is the inflexible and extreme prognosis it has for society. The irony is that some of the ideas of McLuhan's is very similar to that of his critics, even by Williams himself (Munday, 2002). Today, the developments regarding the technological deterministic role to society have become less grave. William's view of technology as an evolutionary component of society and its being intrinsic in the development of modern society can be readily observed. His suggestions that that communication can be motivated by technology as well have it for its product reflects not just a linear relationship between the two but suggests the existence of a collaborative relationship (Franklin 1990; Hughes, 2000). The Development of Print Media The year 1452 saw Gutenberg develop the first printing press using movable type. Prior to this, books and other publications were limited because of the labor intensive production of the materials. Many publications had to be done by hand individually and the level of literacy was also a skill not common enough. The tools that Gutenberg utilized were paper, oil-based ink and a wine-press. The development of the printing press is not a specific technological development or innovation but rather the combination technologies that already been in use for the conception of the printing press (Manuscripts, Books, and Maps: The Printing Press and a Changing World, n. d.). Following Williams model, we can analyze the development of print media. The printing press was an evolutionary development in printing. Printing pre-existed the development of the printing press, printed materials were already in circulation though greatly limited, even a luxury reserved for the privileged. It did not obliterate existing printing methods nor did it changed the way a book looked or how posters and publications were used. The development of a means of making printed materials easier to reproduce and reach greater circulation increased as population increased and became educated through books and other materials. The increase in population increases the need for information. These stems from the society's need for enculturation, cohesiveness and structure its members. The development printing press aimed to answer to these needs. After the development of the first printing press, the development of other technologies has continued. Today, publication can be read online using the internet, allowing for universal access. The Development of Electronic Mail Electronic mail or e-mail was developing well before the Internet and was actual one of motivations for its conceptualization creating it (The History of Electronic Mail, 2005). It was in 1989 that Tim Berners-Lee, recognized as the primary proponent of the concept and creating of the World Wide Web, was a researcher at Conseil Europenne pour la Recherche Nucleaire's (CERN's), European High-Energy Particle Physics laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. It was originally used as a means of communication for research collaboration by the CERN's physicists (Gribble, 2006). On the other hand, the E-mail was already inexistence in 1965 as a communication tool using a time-sharing mainframe computer (The History of Electronic Mail, 2005). As much as email has changed the way we communicate, it is still but an evolution of already existing communication systems. The creating of email has not changed the principles and motivations of letter writing and in many ways actually mimics snail mail. The technology progressed from being mere text strings to actual correspondence similarly as literature develops form graphical images to the development of text used for the composition of literary epics. The research and application on the use of email helped the development of other technologies like the internet and gave inspiration to SMS technology as well (The History of the Internet, 2006). This reflects Williams' supposition that as technology answers to the needs of people such as communication, it motivates the development of other technologies as well as feeds the natural demands for further utilization by society. Conclusion Neither Williams' nor McLuhen provide flawless propositions, in reality, the ever changing facets of society and individuals will preclude them from doing so. However, the advantage of Williams' model is that it allows for the interplay of more factors that can influence society. His model may not be as exacting as that of McLuhen's but in it may be in this ambiguity that it gains its definitive position as a social theory. According to Chandler (1996), it may be to much to attribute to technology or media exclusively the role primary determinant for developments in society. He says that it is through the interplay with other factors in society that technology impacts change. 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