Behaviorism, Functionalism, and Cognitive Psychology: History and Modern Application - Essay Example

Behaviorism, Functionalism and Cognitive Psychology: History and Modern Application 2009 Behaviorism, Functionalism and Cognitive Psychology: History and Modern Application Explaining human psychology and behavior is one the most intriguing and complex tasks associated with the science of psychology. Numerous outstanding thinkers repeatedly attempted to understand the behavior of other people and create effective tools and strategies to change it. The quest continues up to now, and the most obvious outcome of the efforts is the finding that human psychology is an overwhelmingly complex and multifaceted field. Almost every perspective that once claimed to discover the psychological determinants of human behavior was subsequently found to have serious limitations and replaced by a new theory. As a result, modern psychology is an amalgam of stances, theories and perspective that supplement or contradict each other. Functionalism Functional psychology or functionalism is a broad psychological school that became popular in the early decades of 20th century. Advocates of functional approach focused on the active (functional) adaptation of human consciousness to the environment (Vandenbos, 2006). Functional psychology relied on the work of William James, a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher, and the evolutionary theory developed of Charles Darwin. The primary concern of functionalists was to understand how the human mind and consciousness functions. Functionalists believed that this could be done via introspection: "Functionalists studied the mind not from the standpoint of its composition-its mental elements of structure-but rather as a conglomerate or accumulation of functions and processes that lead to practical consequences in the real world" (Schultz, & Schultz, 2008, p.145). As a result, functionalists rejected the traditional positivist philosophy of experimental research and advocated the potential of rational thought being concerned with the capability of the mind and practical value of psychological research. The essence of functional psychology was articulated by John Dewey, the brightest representative of functionalism, in his "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896). Dewey criticized the notion of elementarism and atomism that dominated early psychology. His criticism also covered the emerging school of behaviorism with its stimulus-response theory (Dewey, 1964). Although functional psychology failed to become a formal school, the concepts and principles formulated by representatives of this approach contributed greatly to the development of behavioral psychology (Schultz, & Schultz, 2008). An essential contribution of functionalism was recognition of the validity of research involving animals, children and people with psychiatric disabilities. Yet the most important contribution of functionalism to contemporary psychological practice was introduction of novel research methods and techniques such as mental tests, questionnaires and physiological measures (Biro, & Shahan, 1982). This legacy continues to play critically important role in modern psychological practice. Behaviorism The origins of behaviorist perspective, a theory successfully applied in modern psychological practice can be traced back to John Watson (1878 - 1958) whom was the first theorist to formulate the principles of modern behaviorism. The school of behaviorism embraces hundreds of theories, practices, and trends that have emerged over several decades. However, the underlying feature of any behaviorist theory or concept is the emphasis on external influences on behavior and motivation that are viewed as the most critical aspect of understanding the inner world of human beings. Thus, Wilfred Sellars (1963), an outstanding philosopher of the last century whom witnessed emergence development and decline of behaviorism noted "a person may qualify as a behaviorist, loosely or attitudinally speaking, if they insist on confirming hypotheses about psychological events in terms of behavioral criteria" (p.22). Behavioral evidence is the founding stone of a typically behaviorist inquiry. The basic assumption of behaviorism is the following: since psychology is a science it must employ a set of scientific methods that allow observation and measurement. John Watson (1878 - 1958) was the first scientist to formulate and justify behaviorist principles in study of human psychology (Vander Zanden, 1993). Watson's definition of this approach was highly practical. Psychology was announced an objective field of knowledge the aim of that was to predict and control human behavior. Introspection and self-analysis were dismissed as useless and lacking practical applications while the principle of zero difference between humans and animals was recognized as practically valuable. In 1913, Watson delivered his famous lecture entitled Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It at Columbia University in New York. Publication of the lecture's text in the Psychological Review (1913) considered as a formal beginning of behaviorism produced immense effect on the scientific community because Watson called for a radical revision of the scope and methods of psychological research. The essence of Watson's highly controversial views was expressed in the following phrase: "Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with that they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation" (Watson, 1913: 158). In other words, Watson believed that introspection was to be abandoned in favor of the study of behavior that should be examined and assessed in its own right regardless of any relationship to consciousness that might exist. In fact, the concept of consciousness was dismissed by Watson as a purely interpretive standard and rather explanatory than practical device. As an objective psychology was supposed to make no sharp distinction between human and animal behavior; consequently its goal was to develop principles by which behavior could be predicted and controlled (Vander Zanden, 1993). He believed in a stimulus-response method in predicting and controlling behavior. His methods, however, differed from those of Pavlov in that he avoided the words 'stimulus' and 'response' in as narrow sense as the Russian physiologist did. A highly controversial element of the behaviorism theory dealt with language and thought. Watson found it necessary to transform the concepts of language and thinking into specific types of behavior in order to maintain consistency in his views (Frager and Fadiman, 2000). Burrhus Frederic Skinner, another highly influential representative of behaviorism, elaborated on Watson's ideas also claiming that the only acceptable and reasonable way to understand human psychology and mental processes was to explore behavior. In his account personality was nothing more than a set of behavioral patterns with external factors shaping human reactions. Analysis of specific mental states Skinner considered useless stating that Freud with his concepts of conscious, unconscious, or super-ego put the clock of science back for 50 years (Skinner, 1984). Skinners theory of human development was probably the simplest among all other theories. He proceeded from the assumption that human behavior depended exceptionally from external stimuli. That is why human development from early childhood follows this way: firstly, child is given a certain stimulus; secondly, he shows his reaction toward it and finds out if this reaction is correct or wrong, dependant upon its outcome (whether it is followed by reinforcer or not); thirdly, if in future the same stimulus occurs again the child usually reacts in the way that showed its effectiveness in the past (Frager and Fadiman, 2000). Skinner believed that human development was merely a process of accumulation of increasingly complex behavioral patterns. Based on that belief, Skinner invented and tested the method of programmed learning. In a series of experiments involving rats and pigeons that were rewarded with food for pressing a lever in the Skinner box, the scientist observed that positive stimuli led to more frequent repetition of the act that caused them; he called such stimuli "reinforcers" (Littleton, Toates, & Braisby, 2002: 175-176). The method of programmed learning relied on this important discovery. Initially, a student set near Skinner's teaching machine that provided him with different tasks. The student had to react somehow, i.e. push buttons, make notes, etc. After the performance was over the student was shown key reaction and obtained the opportunity to check his own results. The students improved their progress largely due to constant feedback from the machine (Skinner, 1958). This finding of Skinner became the cornerstone of a popular modern teaching technique, namely interactive computer learning. Theories of Watson and Skinner are alike in their theoretical base and general approach. They both are adherents of pure behaviorism: they do not distinguish between human beings and animals: for example, Skinner collected his experimental data using with pigeons and rats. Also both scientists neglected the role of introspection and cognition as determining factors of human behavior; they considered that reinforcement played the main part in the process of learning. Therefore, behavior of human being is shaped by the variety of stimuli available in the environment and the amount of reinforces for these stimuli. According to behaviorism, the most reliable way to explain human behavior is to analyze the situation in which such behavior occurs more frequently and identify the stimulus and the reinforcer. Cognitive Psychology The main feature of cognitive approach is the principle of conscious information processing. This principle postulates that people do not simply receive information and react to it but also interpret it according to the prior experience. The basic principle of this approach is the assumption that a person assimilates certain facts/concepts from the environment and internalizes them according to her own cognitive structure (Baars, 1988). The cognitive perspective implies that development of cognitive mechanisms (such as memory, thinking, sensory abilities, etc) and language are the main tools of learning behavior. Before the child can effectively master a certain behavioral pattern he should master language that helps correctly perceive the world around him. This aspect constitutes perhaps the most dramatic distinction between the behaviorist and cognitive views of learning. Social determination of the process of learning (Vygotsky), emphasis on the internal processes of learning (Piaget), and the role of teachers in organization of learning process (Bruner) represent other important foci points that contribute to the distinction of the cognitive perspective (Baars, 1988). Absence of agreement as for the inner processes that take place during learning as well as absence of applicable methods of their investigation is probably the main drawback of cognitive psychology. A good example of cognitive approach in psychology is provided by Albert Bandura, another outstanding American thinker of the last century. Bandura's theory implies that behavior of human being is neither determined by solely inward causes nor by environmental influences but by the dynamic interaction between these two types. At the same time, Bandura does not view human behavior as an absolutely passive object of external or internal influences. According to his theory, human beings are free to choose behavioral pattern depending on the circumstances. This essential ability helps predict possible reactions of the environment which also includes other human beings. In this case the behavior itself influences the surrounding circumstances. Based on these assumptions Bandura developed one of the core concepts his social cognitive theory is based upon: reciprocal determinism (Bandura 1978). Figure 1: The visual model of reciprocal determinism Source: Bandura 1986, p. 23 This simple scheme demonstrates the essence of reciprocal determinism: B is behavior, P is properties of personality, and E is environmental influence. Therefore, human behavior is the result of interaction between three components, namely personal or inward peculiarities and cognitions, exterior causes, and behavior itself. Each component within this model is in direct relationship with each of the other two, but neither of them can be addressed as absolutely dominant: "behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors, and environmental influences all operate interactively as determinants of each other" (Bandura 1986, p.23). Importance of each element may change depending on the situation. Although Bandura is in line with the traditional behaviorist tradition in his refusal to acknowledge existence of 'personality' he does believe that one of the three components that affect human behavior comes close to being defined as 'personality: inward peculiarities the main part of which is cognition (Bandura 1978). In his numerous publications, Bandura described two types of learning: enactive and observational. The former type had been justified and explained earlier by the brightest thinker of traditional behavioral school Burrhus Frederic Skinner (Skinner 1950). This type of learning is primitive, and can be found in lower animals: it directly depends upon positive or negative reinforcement. Bandura questioned the point of view that this type of learning plays an important role in shaping behavior of human being: he reasonably believed that human behavior is too complex to be shaped in such primitive way; conscious conceptualization is necessary for reinforcement to have results (Bandura 1986). Bandura also proposed the concept of observational learning which he claimed could be observed exclusively in human beings to reflect the key difference in learning patterns between human beings and animals. Observations allow human being learn without any involvement into the situation of learning. This assumption openly contradicts the traditional behaviorist notion that only direct learning is an effective method of knowledge acquisition. In his famous series of experiments children were shown a stranger beating a doll. After that the children tried to imitate abusive handling of the doll, and the same effect was observed even when they watched a violent model of behavior on video (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1961). According to the social cognitive theory in general and the concept of observational learning in particular reinforcement was not necessarily a prerequisite of specific behavioral models. Bandura believes that individuals may acquire patterns of behavior based solely upon observation of other people who receive reinforcement. This specific type of learning saves people the trouble of performing countless number of operations and accelerates the process of human development (Bandura 1986). In fact, social cognitive theory proposed by Bandura relies almost exclusively on the observational type of learning. Although Albert Bandura gives serious consideration to the environmental influences in his theory, he can hardly be referred to as pure behaviorist: the social cognitive theory stands apart amongst the rest of doctrines explaining human behavior. Bandura maintained that personality is shaped by group of determinants: the behavior, the individual properties, with cognition playing the main part, and the environmental influence within the system of dynamic relationships. In accord with this theory people can learn even observing behavior or reaction of other people (Frager & Fadiman 2000). Thus, the social cognitive theory focuses upon human ability for thinking and cognition, giving much less attention to the environmental factors if compared to Skinner for instance. One more feature that sets Bandura's theory apart from the classic behaviorist models is indirect reinforcement and, of course, observational learning. At the same time, Bandura also relies heavily upon the basic principles of behaviorism thus admitting the role of environmental influences in shaping human behavior. Conclusion Each major psychological theory that has been developed to explain human behavior and personality has its own strengths and limitations. Psychoanalytic theories tend to neglect the positive potential of human nature focusing almost exclusively on the hidden sexual drives and motives as determinants of human behavior. Humanistic theories offer the proper way of thinking and lifestyle for people to feel happy rather than provide a scientific, research-oriented and reliable explanation of human behavior. Cognitive theories tend to pay insufficient attention to the environmental determinant focusing on the processes that occur inside human brain. Extreme biologization and primitivization of human psychology is the major drawback of behaviorism: behaviorists did not distinguish between humans and animals while the humanistic approach avoided this drawback highlighting uniqueness of the human condition. The cognitive perspective also avoids the pitfalls of behaviorism and seems to be one of the most credible approaches up to date: it underlies majority of pedagogical models that have been designed over the last several decades. However, absence of agreement concerning the inner processes that take place inside the child's brain, coupled with absence of reliable methods to explore them is an essential drawback of the cognitive theories of learning. Although modern psychological science seeks to integrate the best features of different perspective in order to create an all-inclusive theory explaining children's behavior the progress has not been impressive up to now. However, while such theory may be of great benefit it is also difficult to argue that the phenomenon of children's behavior can not be effectively explained within the framework of the existing approaches. Versatile and often contradictory information coming from different perspectives is of great help for several reasons. Firstly, up to now there is no clear answer regarding what type of determinants dominates in each particular case, but it is already clear that they are likely to vary seriously from person to person. Therefore, versatile knowledge about the determinants and mechanisms of children's behavior will result in more informed choices to explain it in each particular case. Effectiveness of the existing interventions intended to produce certain change in behavior has been demonstrated repeatedly despite the fact that they are often based on different approaches to human behavior. Thus, numerous variations of the Cognitive Therapy (Beck et al. 1993) are based on the cognitive perspective; Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) is an off-spring of the humanistic psychology (Miller, 1996); and Behavioral Therapy employs the concepts and ideas of behaviorist stance (Clark & Fairburn, 1997). However, each of these methods has been repeatedly confirmed to be effective in changing behavioral patterns. This statement can be illustrated by the recent tendency toward development of therapies and interventions that rely on a combination of psychological theories. For example, cognitive and behavioral interventions have been traditionally considered independent and sometimes contradictory therapeutic methods. Behavioral therapists did not consider cognitive structure to be important in treatment interventions and focused primarily on the external behavioral reactions be observed and assessed. Cognitive therapists, in their turn, stressed the importance of human cognitions and emotions in the treatment process. As a result, the goal of a typical cognitive therapy was "... to reduce excessive emotional reactions and self-defeating behavior by modifying the faulty or erroneous thinking and maladaptive beliefs that underlie these reactions" (Beck et al. 1993: 21). In a genuinely cognitive therapy, the therapist's approach to focusing on cognitions was based on leading the patient through a series of questions, and the treatment was believed to reduce or eliminate the abnormal behavioral patterns by changing the patient's way of thinking (Carroll, 1998). However, a number of highly effective practices and interventions have been developed recently on the basis of both behaviorist and cognitive theories. For example, the famous Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) represents a merger of these two approaches: it focuses on cognitive and behavioral experiences of the patient viewing them as the entwined aspects of human behavior (Beck, 1993). This tendency once again proves that every perspective that has emerged up to day is equally important in explaining human behavior: there are no primary or secondary theories, and each of them contributed greatly to the current psychological practice. References Baars, B. J. (1988). A cognitive theory of consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bandura, A. 1978, 'The self system in reciprocal determinism', American Psychologist Vol. 33, pp. 344-358. Bandura, A. 1986, Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. 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