Lifelong Learning: Lifespan Development Theories - Essay Example

Lifelong Learning of the School] of the Chapter Lifespan development theories: Mezirow, Hansen, Super, Campbell Theorizing about career choice and lifespan development dates back to the turn of the twentieth century, and the interest in the area has grown steadily over that time period. Although a number of theories have emerged over time, few have stood the test of time, which is the important measure of the theory's worth. In this chapter I will discuss three theories of lifespan development including the theories of Mezirow, Hansen, and Super. Additionally I will elaborate the Transition and Transformation theory of Joseph Campbell. Donald E. Super's theory of career choice and development Donald E. Super's work experience from 1953 to 1996 resulted in the development of famous Super's career development theory. Super's theory included propositions relating to trait-and-factor theory, developmental psychology, and personal construct theory, from which Super derived his ideas about self-concepts and sociological theory. Super proved that the changes in the self-concept develop throughout the person's life as a result of experience. People modify their self-concepts depending on the career choice and new work conditions. The important part of Super's theory is dedicated to the construct of career concerns as divided by the six stages of person's development depending on the age span. Development stages were described by the theorist in the beginning of his career (1954) and are as the following: 1. The crystallization stage, ages 14-18 2. Specification stage, ages 18-21 3. Implementation stage, ages 21-24 4. The stabilization stage, ages 24-35 5. Consolidation, age 35 6. Readiness for retirement, age 55 As we see these stages relate to the life-span dimension of the person: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middlessence and senescence respectively coincide with career stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance and disengagement. The first stage include major tasks concerned with acquiring knowledge at school and defining the goals for the future. The career stages of adulthood that includes specification stage, implementation stage and stabilization stage describe adults who are looking for stability and advancement in their jobs. Stability referrers to as keeping the same job for a long time period, struggling to meet job requirements but still being concerned about one's competencies. On arrival in the job market, young adults reflect on how to achieve their vocational goals. They then move on to seeking a promising path by questioning their goals and abilities in an attempt to accelerate vocational development. The adult then "grapple with the occupational race", striving to reach a plateau of occupational status (Super, 1969) Once adults reach their late twenties, different aspects of their career choice is combined with the feeling of safety and certainty in their competence and dependability. Advancing in career implies promotions, or moving to a position with more responsibility, and may involve a higher income (Super, 1980). After career has been established, adults become concerned holding on, keeping up and innovating in their careers during the consolidation stage. In the final career stage at the age of around 55 people are sure about tomorrow's day and have no need to keep on working, so they declare retirement. In conclusion, perceived as a well-respected theory, Super's theory of career choice and development it is regarded as one of the most comprehensive approaches describing the crucial factors of person's career. Mezirow and transformative learning Mezirow in his theory of transformative learning focused on the idea of perspective transformation, which he understood as the learning process by which adults come to recognise and reframe their culturally induced dependency roles and relationships. Later he drew on the work of Habermas to propose a theory of transformative learning 'that can explain how adult learners make sense or meaning of their experiences, the nature of the structures that influence the way they construe experience, the dynamics involved in modifying meanings, and the way the structures of meaning themselves undergo changes when learners find them to be dysfunctional' (Mezirow, 1991, p. xii). Transformative learning is basically the kind of learning we do as we make sense of our lives. This is important because, as adults, the meaning-making process can change everything about how we look at work, family and the world. Transformative learning is rooted in the philosophy of constructivism, which unlike behaviorism with its external reality, argues that reality is constructed by the observer through interpretation of experience. Cognitive and Gestalt psychologists, as well as humanist-oriented (phenomenological) psychologists fall within a wide ambit of constructivism in which people respond to the world as they see it. External phenomena are meaningless except as the person interprets them. A defining condition of being human is that we have to understand the meaning of our experience. For some, any uncritically assimilated explanation by an authority figure will suffice. But in contemporary society we must learn to make our own interpretations rather than act on the purposes, beliefs, judgments and feelings of others. Facilitating such understandings is the cardinal goal of adult education. Transformative learning develops autonomous thinking (Mezirow, 1997, p. 5). Transformation is something that is usually triggered by a problem, and very often transformative experiences are painful to go through. After identifying their problem or challenge, people seem to enter a phase where they reflect on the matter critically - this is typically a problem that one has never experienced before, so it takes a lot of thinking and talking to others to work through. During the thinking phase, people might find that they can no longer keep their old ways of thinking and being - they are compelled to change. Finally, there is an action phase where people decide to do something. This could mean that you have to break off certain relationships that no longer fit your beliefs; it could mean that you decide to make a career change; action can take many forms. So, clearly, transformative learning is not just learning, and this is one of the problems people have with this whole theory. For example, what if you go back to school and get a degree - have you transformed yourself This is a tough question and the answer won't be the same for everybody. What Mezirow says is that learning 'can consist of a change in one of our beliefs or attitudes' (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 320); this is what he calls a 'meaning scheme'. But this isn't transformational learning in Mezirow's opinion. It's only when we change our entire perspective on something (our meaning perspective) that we really transform. Hansen's theory of vocational development Hansen believed that if people actively engage in choosing their vocations rather than allow chance to operate in the hunt for a job, they are more satisfied with their careers, employers' costs decrease, and employees' efficiency increases. In the wise choice of a vocation there are three broad factors: (1) a clear understanding of yourself, your aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions, resources, limitations, and knowledge of their causes; (2) a knowledge of the requirements, conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities, and prospects in different lines of work; (3) true reasoning on the relations of these two groups of facts" (Hansen, 1991:5). These rather simple ideas are still at the core of most modern theories of career choice and development. Transition and Transformation by Joseph Campbell According to Campbell person's learning has two stages of development: transition and transformation. Transformative learning occurs when individuals change their frames of reference by critically reflecting on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making and implementing plans that bring about new ways of defining their worlds. Campbell's theory describes a learning process that is primarily 'rational, analytical, and cognitive' (Campbell, 1999, pp. 90-91). For the author all meaning is based on interpretation and the critical dimension of adult learning is reflection, or the process of validating ideas and assumptions based on prior learning. He defines learning as a process of construing a new or revised interpretation of one's experiences in order to guide future action. For learners to change their "meaning schemes (specific beliefs, attitudes, and emotional reactions)", they must engage in critical reflection on their experiences, which in turn leads to a perspective transformation (Campbell, 1999, p. 167). "Transition is the process of becoming critically aware of how and why our assumptions have come to constrain the way we perceive, understand, and feel about our world; changing these structures of habitual expectation to make possible a more inclusive, discriminating, and integrating perspective; and, finally, making choices or otherwise acting upon these new understandings" (Campbell, 1990, p. 170). Chapter Two - Career is a work in progress Efforts to help people identify appropriate careers can be traced to the fifteenth century, and by the nineteenth century at least sixty five books had been published on the topic. The first vocational guidance program emerged in this country in San Francisco in 1888-in Cogswell High School-and subsequently in high schools in Detroit in 1897 (Brewer, 1942). However, the roots of career development theory did not emerge until Frank Parsons advanced the three-step "formula" which described successful choosing a career. However there are other theories that describe career development as a constant work including theories of Duane Brown, Spencer Nils, Charles Handy, Head & Crowe and Jane Golden. The theories of these authors are discussed in the second chapter of the paper. Duane Brown: value-based career development Brown theory of career development is based on the person's values as the core factor of career advancement. The author refers Hartung, et al. (1998), Ibrahim, Ohnishi, & Wilson (1994) who have suggested that cultural values, particularly social relationship values, play an important role in the career development process. As a starting point of the theories of these authors, Brown states that she "believe that a number of cultural values play important roles in the career development and occupational choice-making process" (Brown, 2002). Values are important in choosing the career as they are the starting point of goal-setting process. Values and outcome expectations are cognitive structures that have behavioral and affective dimensions (Rokeach, 1973). Values are core beliefs that individuals experience as standards that guide how they 'should' function. The idea that values are experienced as standards can be used to explain successful and unsuccessful interpersonal relationships on and off the job. Because values focus partially on desired end states, they can be used to explain why people who choose some occupations are unhappy with their choices, even when they perform the tasks associated with those jobs in exemplary fashion. Similarly, values can be used to explain motivational processes. Brown develops her theory of values-based career development stating that "individuals experience their values in terms of 'oughts' that identify both the processes and objectives to be pursued moreover, values can be used to explain the complex human interactions that occur in the workplace because they are the basis for the evaluation of others. The idea that values serve as standards sets them apart from both interests and outcome expectations.Values develop so that individuals can meet their needs in socially acceptable ways" (Brown 2002) The values system described by Brown in her article "The role of work and cultural values in occupational choice, satisfaction, and success: a theoretical statement" (2002) contains all the values held by individuals, including cultural values and work values. The latter include: Human nature (human beings are good, bad, or neither) Person-nature relationship (nature dominates people; people dominate nature; living in harmony with nature is important) Time orientation (past, past-future, present, or circular, that is, oriented to changes that recur in nature, as opposed to time as measured by watches and calendars) Activity ([being] spontaneous self-expression is important; [being-in-becoming] controlled self-expression is important; [doing] action-oriented self-expression is important) Self-control (it is either highly or moderately important to control one's thoughts and emotions). Work values are the values that individuals believe should be satisfied as a result of their participation in the work role (a desired end state) and lead them to set directional goals: 'I ought to move in this direction by acting in a certain way.' Values also play the central role in the decision-making process because they are the basis of goal setting. Goals, if properly constructed, move the individual toward desired end states (for example, being accepted by others). Financial prosperity, altruism, achievement, and responsibility are examples of work values. Charles Handy: The Sigmoid curve A useful tool to explore the need to rethink critically future direction is provided by Charles Handy (1994), who makes use of the Sigmoid curve. Figure 1: The Sigmoid curve (Handy 1994:51) Handy suggests that most organizations rise and fall or expand and contract in a way very similar to a sine wave. The challenge for leadership is to assess where the organization is on the Sigmoid curve. As schools start to improve and move up the curve to point "Inception", there is a danger that all the signals coming into the organization say the school is doing well and it should keep on doing what it is already doing. Therein lies the danger. It is at point "Inception" that the school has the positive success culture and needs to rethink what it will mean to be successful in five years' time. What is the rethinking that needs to take place (the shaded area) so that the school reengineers how it operates and moves onto the next curve to become successful in the future environment in which it will be operating. If change does not take place, although increasingly successful in the short term, the school will eventually become less effective in the long term and decline to point "Growth" where achievement, morale and resources are in decline and change is difficult to effect. This analysis is also useful when applied to component parts within the school. For example, what does it mean to have an effective approach to science in the future What does the science coordinator or head of science need to be aware of in current trends and possible future trends so that a dialogue and understanding can be built for greater effectiveness in the future Career Resilience - Spencer Nils Career resilience is referred to a capacity to deal with unexpected challenges in the career path and ability to overcome disappointments at work. Resilient person is the one who anticipates protective behavior and avoid risk factors caused by the course of events. The research on career resilience is connected with the theory of Spencer Nils who introduced the competences required for managing turbulent labour environment. The theorists suggests that career resilience is linked to le savoir devenir, or the capacity to predict the future and see a clear career direction which reflects both who we are (savoir tre) and what we are capable of doing (savoir faire) (Spencer Nils, 2001) This is by means that career-resilient person would have a strategic vision of the future work conditions and would anticipate both ups and downs on the career path. The person would then know how to resist negative pressures and to manage the situation on the workplace. Career-resilient person would be motivated by the goal set in the beginning of the career and would not be discouraged by events taking place with co-workers. Such kind of person would change jobs or stay on the same job or do whatever would be needed to reach career objective. Chapter 3: Theoretical Explanation of Multiple Intelligence In the fast-paced, technology-dense world indwelled by much of the earth's population, the supreme human resource is intelligence. That is because intelligence consists of the knowledge, skills, and strategies necessary to be effective in a world that is complex and information-rich, a world in which daily life consists largely in a concatenation of problems to be solved. Intelligence shapes the economic prospects of individuals, organizations, and nations. Intelligence also connects to the causes and potential solutions of deep-rooted social problems. My thesis is this: The intellectual abilities that are crucial to modern life, including economic viability and effectiveness in daily living, correspond to the cognitive functions that are reasonably called intelligence. Moreover, those intellectual abilities are learnable. The question of whether intelligence is unitary or multiple has been a point of contention among intellectuals through the centuries. Socrates saw intelligence as basically unitary, whereas Plato and Aristotle saw intelligence as multiple (Snow, 1982a). The best known modern version of a multiple view of intelligence is Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences who proposed the existence of eight "relatively autonomous" intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, A brief description of each of the intelligences is presented in Table 1. In addition to these, Gardner (1997) left open the possibility of additional intelligences, such as an "existential" intelligence identified by deep concern with and insight into questions of meaning and existence. In proposing separate intelligences, Gardner rejected the idea of a unifocal g that cuts across disparate forms of cognitive functioning. This conceptualization of intelligence is "Thurstonian" in orientation, although not in methodology. Multiple intelligences (MI) theory can be seen as a modern-day version of the independent factor theories of E. L. Thorndike and Thurstone in the early 1900s, but is based on a different set of epistemological tools. In a considerable break from past epistemologies used to understand intelligence, Gardner conjoined methods and findings from several disciplines to construct a theory that has broadened traditional accounts of what constitutes intelligence. Gardner drew from many data sources, but primary among these is the neurological phenomenon of selective impairment. In brain-injured patients, cognitive impairments are sometimes circumscribed such that other cognitive abilities retain normal functioning. For example, a brain injury might disrupt musical competence but leave logical, language, and other functions unharmed; if so, Gardner would take this as evidence for the neurological independence of musical intelligence. The selective impairment methodology assumes that intelligences can be mapped onto different regions of the cerebral cortex, and in fact Gardner found some evidence for the anatomical separability of intelligences (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Another stream of evidence for MI theory is the variety of adult roles and, especially, the expert end-states valued by cultures. A poet, for example, is the apotheosis of linguistic intelligence; a sculptor displays a honed form of spatial intelligence. The existence of cross-cultural differences in the relative valuation of intelligences is yet another line of evidence for Gardner's distinctions. For example, Head & Crowe ( 1970) study of sea navigation in Micronesia demonstrated how a focused ability (spatial) can be indispensable to achievements of high prestige within a culture. The master navigators of the Puluwat atoll can steer an outrigger sailing canoe over hundreds of miles of open ocean. To do this, they rely on a system of celestial navigation of their own invention, and pass on the secret knowledge of sea navigation only to those young men who are invited into the guild. Two peculiar kinds of expertise are the conspicuous talents of prodigies and idiots savants. To Gardner, the existence of children who develop impressive levels of musical talent precociously is evidence for the independence of musical intelligence. Among idiots savants, functioning is uniformly subnormal except in the focal area of talent. For example, some idiots savants (or autistic savants or simply savants), having heard a complex musical piece only once, may be able to reproduce it flawlessly on a piano. Yet, the savant is no genius -- typically, his or her "expertise" is inflexible and unoriginal. Nonetheless, the stunning prominence of a single ability against a field of general impairment was seen by Gardner as evidence for the independence of its referent intelligence. Table 1: The Eight Intelligences Intelligence End-States Core Components Logical-mathematical Scientist, mathematician Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning Linguistic Poet, journalist Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language Musical Composer, violinist Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of forms of musical expressiveness Spatial Navigator, sculptor Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations of one's initial perceptions Bodily-kinesthetic Dancer, athlete Abilities to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully Interpersonal Therapist, salesperson Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations and desires of other people Intrapersonal Person with detailed, Access to one's own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them accurate self-knowledge and draw on them to guide behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences Naturalist Botanist, geologist, The ability to distinguish among, classify, and use features of natural archaeologist and artificial environments Note. From "Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences", by H. Gardner, and T. Hatch, 1989, As further evidence for independent intelligences, Gardner cited the module-based development of symbol systems used to represent and communicate ideas. For musical and linguistic intelligence, these symbol systems are obvious: musical notation and written language. Logical-mathematical intelligence is supported notationally by an elaborate system of symbols, equations, and operations. Other intelligences have lesser-known symbol systems or none at all, but according to Gardner the generation of a supportive symbol system is only a tendency, not a requirement. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is significant methodologically and theoretically because it reaches beyond the parochiality of much psychometric and cognitive research on intelligence. Albanese and Sabers (1988), in a frank commentary on their own methodology, admitted that psychometrically defined intelligence has been "systematically biased" and "sadly uninformed by imaginative safaris into new areas" (p. 128). Gardner's theory goes a long way toward remedying this bias. MI theory also has practical implications. Schooling and Western culture generally are strongly skewed toward certain kinds of intellectual expression, especially linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. Other aspects of intelligence are neglected or ignored, possibly squandering talent. To the degree that educational systems can recognize and develop the full range of abilities represented by diverse intelligences, individuals -- indeed, all of society -- will benefit. Exciting Paradigm of Individualism It should not surprise anyone familiar with the subject that the term "individualism" has been used in a variety of ways, none of them necessarily in accord with the others. Common usage -- at least in the United States -- has tended to make "individualism" a term with very positive connotations, so positive in fact that one might easily find it among the common person's list of those things that can make us great. Indeed, that great common man, Emerson remarked that "the Union must be ideal in actual individualism." Yet, when the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences begins its discussion of the term by calling it an "attitude of mind which is naturally produced in a certain kind of society," it continues, "That society is most easily described in negative terms." (Emerson, 1962:150) In fact, the term "individualism" opens up a labyrinth of meaning that goes well beyond mere disagreement about positive and negative connotations. Colin Morris's introduction to his Discovery of the Individual: 1050-1200 reveals a few of the shadowy passages that beckon when one tries to explore the meaning of individualism. He says: The hard core of this individualism lies in the psychological experience with which we began: the sense of a clear distinction between my being and that of other people. The significance of this experience is greatly increased by our belief in the value of human beings themselves. Morris's "sense of a clear distinction" between beings is easy enough to accept; he is, in fact, probably completely correct in identifying that sense as the foundation of individualism. But the sense of distinctness of being can lead to many things, not all of them necessarily humanistic; it may as easily lead to opportunism, and worse, if it is not tempered by a "belief in the value of human beings in themselves" -- precisely the point upon which negative assessments of individualism, from de Tocqueville to the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, hinge, as we shall see. Nor is there any guarantee that the tempering "value of human beings" will follow upon the perception of distinctness. We may like to think that individualism is a form of humanism, but there is not unanimous agreement on this point. Morris wisely avoids making any sweeping claims about the nature of the relationships between individualism, our belief in the value of human beings in themselves, or the tendency he later ascribes to Kant and others to assert the supreme value of the individual. Certainly each of the passageways we glimpse in Morris's description does belong to the network of meaning that makes up individualism, but he does not attempt to provide a map of this labyrinth. And perhaps it is his reluctance to do so that saves him from falling into the trap of treating this complex maze from a single, limiting perspective. Though it would be unfair to accuse them of reductionism or even of failure to appreciate the complexity of their topic, some discussions of individualism set out to map the labyrinth of its meaning, both connotative and denotative, but, for all their depth of analysis, often leave one feeling that something essential has been left out. For the most part, these discussions tend to be written from the point of view of the social sciences, which appear to have appropriated the term individualism for use in a largely political context -- an unfortunate circumstance, since, as Morris suggests, the term has connotations that reverberate throughout the broad range of humanistic study. Conclusions The focus of this paper was to discuss different theories on career development and lifespan learning. Among dozens of theories proposed by theories over the beginning of twenty's century, only several have stood the test of time. These are the theories elaborated by Super, Hansen and Mezimow. The authors basically discussed career development during the lifespan and the effects of age on the progress of career. Mezirow, as it was discussed in the first chapter of the paper enhanced the famous theory of transformative learning focused on the idea of perspective transformation, which he understood as the learning process by which adults come to recognise and reframe their culturally induced dependency roles and relationships. In the second chapter of the paper I have discussed the career development as a work in the process of the whole career. The major theory discussed was one of Duane Brown who has issued a number of books and articles on the subject. Brown theory as discussed in this paper puts values as a primary factor of the career. The values that people have play crucial role in the career development and progress as they orient on one or another goal and define the ways of its reaching. The second chapter also provided the discussion of career resilience, a famous term that stands for career progress under any circumstances and in any conditions for the sake of reaching the objective of career path. Finally the third part of the paper was about Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Eight intelligences proposes by the theorist were discussed in the chapter. Bibliography: 1. Campbell, J. P. ( 1971 ). Personnel training and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 22, 565-602. 2. Spencer Nils (2001), Portfolios to enhance Career Resilience, Vancouver, BC, Human Resources Development Canada. 3. Super, D. E. ( 1969 ). "Vocational development theory: Persons, positions, and processes". The Counseling Psychologist, 1, 2-9. 4. Super, D. E. ( 1980 ). "A life-span, life-space approach to career development". Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 282-298. 5. Campbell, J. P. ( 1990 ). An overview of the Army Selection and Classification Project (Project A). 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