Main Approaches in Psychology - Essay Example

ORDER # 212264 Main Approaches in Psychology Expand Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology is thescientificstudy of cognition. Cognition refers to the process of knowing, and cognitive psychology is the study of all mental activities related to acquiring, storing, and using knowledge. The domain of cognitive psychology spans the entire spectrum of conscious and unconscious mental activities: sensation and perception, learning and memory, thinking and reasoning, attention and consciousness, imagining and dreaming, decision making, and problem solving Overtheyears,cognitive psychologists have discovered that mental activities that seem simple and natural are, in fact, extraordinarily complex. For example, most children have no trouble learning language from their parents. But how do young children decode the meanings of sounds and grasp the basic rules of grammar Why do children learn language more easily and rapidly than adults Explaining these puzzles has proven very difficult, and attempts to duplicate true language ability in machines have failed. Even the most advanced computers have trouble understanding the meaning of a simple story or conversation. Cognitive psychologists have found similar complexity in other mental processes. 2. Developmental psychology Developmental Psychology is the studyofchangesin human behavior and thought from infancy to old age. Developmental psychology is the study of how people change over time, but it also investigates how and why certain characteristics remain consistent over the life course. A child changes dramatically in size, physical coordination, and thinking capacity while maturing into an adult, for example, but may also maintain the same basic temperament while growing up. Traditionally,developmental psychologists have focused on child development, believing that most formative experiences of life occur during infancy and childhood. The early years are indeed a time of extremely rapid development, when children acquire motor skills, thinking abilities, social skills, capacities for feeling and regulating emotion, and other characteristics that will last a lifetime. But psychologists have more recently turned their attention to adolescence and adulthood, recognizing that development continues throughout the life span. The study of adult development focuses on the unique experiences of this stage of life and examines how adults maintain and refine their capabilities as they age. Thestudyofhumandevelopment requires an especially broad and integrative approach. Thus, developmental psychology incorporates ideas from almost every other area of psychology, including social psychology, cognitive psychology, biopsychology, clinical psychology, and educational psychology. It also draws from many other fields concerned with human behavior. These include sociology, biology (especially genetics and evolutionary biology), anthropology, and economics. The variety of fields relevant to developmental psychology reflects the complexity of human growth and change.(Microsoft Encarta 2007 1993-2006 ) 3. Biological Psychology Biopsychology, is thescientificstudy of the biology of behavior and mental processes. People also refer to this field as biological psychology, psychobiology, behavioral biology, or behavioral neuroscience. Thetermbiopsychology denotes a biological approach to psychology, rather than a psychological approach to biology. Most biopsychologists are trained experimental psychologists who have brought their knowledge of biology to the study of psychological phenomena. These phenomena include behavior and underlying psychological processes, such as learning, memory, perception, attention, motivation, emotion, and cognition. Biopsychologistswork in a variety of overlapping fields of study. Scientists in cognitive neuroscience primarily study the brain to understand the neural mechanisms of mental processes. Researchers in the field of psychopharmacology examine how drugs affect the psychological functions of the brain. Scientists in the field of neuropsychology study the psychological effects of brain damage in humans. Researchers in behavioral genetics study how genes influence behavior and psychological traits. Evolutionary psychologists investigate how evolution shapes psychological processes. Comparative psychologists study animal behavior by comparing findings among different species. Comparative psychology often entails ethology, the scientific study of the way animals behave in their natural habitat. The publication of The Organization of Behavior in 1949 by Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb played a key role in the emergence of the field. In his book, Hebb developed the first comprehensive theory of how brain activity might produce various complex psychological phenomena. Hebb's book stimulated the emergence of biopsychology by discrediting the widely held view that psychological functioning was too complex to have its roots in the chemistry and physiology of the brain. Hebb based his theories on experiments involving humans and animals, on clinical case studies, and on logical arguments developed from his own observations of daily life. This eclectic approach became a hallmark of biopsychological analysis. Behaviorism Behaviorism is a movementinpsychology that advocates the use of strict experimental procedures to study observable behavior (or responses) in relation to the environment (or stimuli). The behavioristic view of psychology has its roots in the writings of the British associationist philosophers (see Associationism), as well as in the American functionalist school of psychology (see Functionalism) and the Darwinian theory of evolution, both of which emphasize the way that individuals adapt and adjust to the environment Behaviorismwasfirst developed in the early 20th century by the American psychologist John B. Watson. The dominant view of that time was that psychology is the study of inner experiences or feelings by subjective, introspective methods. Watson did not deny the existence of inner experiences, but he insisted that these experiences could not be studied because they were not observable. He was greatly influenced by the pioneering investigations of the Russian physiologists Ivan P. Pavlov and Vladimir M. Bekhterev on conditioning of animals (classical conditioning). Watson proposed to make the study of psychology scientific by using only objective procedures such as laboratory experiments designed to establish statistically significant results. The behavioristic view led him to formulate a stimulus-response theory of psychology. In this theory all complex forms of behavior-emotions, habits, and such-are seen as composed of simple muscular and glandular elements that can be observed and measured. He claimed that emotional reactions are learned in much the same way as other skills. Watson'sstimulus-response theory resulted in a tremendous increase in research activity on learning in animals and in humans, from infancy to early adulthood. Between 1920 and midcentury, behaviorism dominated psychology in the United States and also had wide international influence. By the 1950s, the new behavioral movement had produced a mass of data on learning that led such American experimental psychologists as Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B. F. Skinner to formulate their own theories of learning and behavior based on laboratory experiments instead of introspective observations. Skinner'sposition,known as radical (or basic) behaviorism, is similar to Watson's view that psychology is the study of the observable behavior of individuals interacting with their environment. Skinner, however, disagrees with Watson's position that inner processes, such as feelings, should be excluded from study. He maintains that these inner processes should be studied by the usual scientific methods, with particular emphasis on controlled experiments using individual animals and humans. His research with animals, focusing on the kind of learning-known as operant conditioning-that occurs as a consequence of stimuli, demonstrates that complex behavior such as language and problem solving can be studied scientifically. He postulated a type of psychological conditioning known as reinforcement. Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Section 2 Behavioral Theory(Theory of Counseling) Assumptions Leaders can be made, rather than are born. Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior. Description Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do. If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt the more ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'. Discussion Behavioral is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This opens the floodgates to leadership development, as opposed to simple psychometric assessment that sorts those with leadership potential from those who will never have the chance. A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both leadership success and the actions of leaders. With a large enough study, you can then correlate statistically significant behaviors with success. You can also identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a second layer of understanding. (changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/behavioral_theory.htm - 20k ) Client-Centered Theory of Counseling ( criticisms on one theory of counseling) Person Centered Counseling was created by Carl Rogers. This type of humanistic counseling deals with the ways in which people perceive themselves consciously rather than having a counselor try to interpret unconscious thoughts or ideas. There are many different components and tools used in person-centered counseling, including active listening, genuineness, paraphrasing, and more. The real point is that the client already has the answers to the problems and the job of the counselor is to listen without making any judgements, without giving advice, and simply help the client feel accepted and understand their own feelings. The psychodynamic counselor sees counseling as helping the person explore their relationships with others, and is achieved through the client becoming more aware of his / her internalised aspects of personality. As much of this mental activity is unconscious, the aim of counseling is to bring internalised conflict into conscious awareness and thus enable the person to deal more effectively with the demands of external reality. Counseling is not only about looking at the past, it is also about building a sustainable future that is spiritually, intellectually and emotionally fulfilling. This may require an exploration of the transpersonal as well as the attitudes, behaviours and feelings associated with everyday experience. You may have lost sight of your vision for yourself, or of the things that you would like to make a permanent feature in your life: those experiences that make you look forward to the day ahead, and allow you to retire to sleep with a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment. Person centered counseling provides an opportunity for you to come to terms with your difficulties and challenges, your hopes . Rogerian counseling involves the counselor's entry into the person's unique phenomenological world. In mirroring this world, the counselor does not disagree or point out contradictions. Neither does he / she attempt to delve into the unconscious. Rogers describes counseling as a process of freeing a person and removing obstacles so that normal growth and development can proceed and the person can become more independent and self-directed. During counseling, the client can move from rigidly of self-perception to fluidity. Certain conditions are necessary for this process. A 'growth promoting climate' requires the counselor to be congruent, have unconditional positive regard for the person as well as show empathic understanding. Congruence on the part of the counselor refers to her / his ability to be completely genuine whatever the self of the moment. He / she is not expected to be a completely congruent person all the time, as such perfection is impossible. Rogers' strong belief in the positive nature of human beings is based on his many years of clinical counseling. He suggests that any person, no matter what the problem, can improve without being taught anything specific by the counselor, once he / she accepts and respects themselves. The resources all lie within the person. This type of therapy, however, may not be effective for severe psychopathologies such as schizophrenia, which today is considered to have strong biological component, or other disorders such as phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder or even depression (which is currently effectively treated with drugs and cognitive therapy). Due to his emphasis on conscious experience, Rogers has also been criticized for a lack of attention to the unconscious. This criticism is not entirely justified. He directly acknowledges the unconscious in later writings. Furthermore, the whole idea of congruence / incongruence and organic wisdom involves the idea of an unconscious and he clearly posits an organism that has many experiences of which the person is not aware. While Rogers contribution in the area of psychotherapy is very substantial, clinical applicability of his therapy may be limited to those segments of the population whose intellectual and cultural backgrounds are compatible with this counseling. This theory's development from therapeutic practice may be both a blessing or a curse. It keeps it practical and bases it in human experience, yet leads to the extension of concepts that while appropriate to counseling, may not be comprehensive or specific enough to apply to all people. Thefieldofcounseling psychology is closely related to clinical psychology. Counseling psychologists may treat mental disorders, but they more commonly treat people with less-severe adjustment problems related to marriage, family, school, or career. Many other types of professionals care for and treat people with psychological disorders, including psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers, and psychiatric nurses. Microsoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Skills That a Counselor Should Have Personal characteristics are just as important as educational requirements when it comes to being a guidance counselor. You must have the capabilities of being caring, patient, and open-minded, and to believe that everyone can change. One of a guidance counselor's main goals is to help students understand themselves so they can develop into adults who are capable of living productive and fulfilling lives Guidance counselors do so many things and provide such valuable information for a student who might be struggling with life choices. They can counsel students individually or sometimes in small groups. A guidance counselor's job can range from leading a classroom discussion to administering placement tests. They also meet with students, parents, teachers, and other members of the school staff to discuss important issues. They also help students arrange their classroom schedules. In elementary schools, guidance counselors try to anticipate problems that may occur in students lives and then try to prevent these problems from happening. Some elementary school counselors can work with the students in the gifted learning program or they can sometimes work with students with learning disabilities who have special needs. Counselors can work with a team that may include the school principal, a psychologist, an evaluator, a social worker, special-education teachers, and parents. At all times elementary school counselors work closely with parents, teachers, and school administrators. In junior high schools, guidance counselors work with other school professionals to help identify the developmental and learning needs of students. Students at these grade levels experience many physical and emotional changes that can affect how they view themselves and how they perform in school. At the high school level, guidance counselors are concerned with educational and career guidance while they also focus on the personal development of the students. High school counselors help students choose school courses and activities that relate to their interests which will prepare them for life after high school. They also show students how to apply for college or for job-training programs. Counselors can provide information on almost any topic and then help a student put this information to use in choosing the best future career path. Whether it is college or job training programs, counselors provide information for students who want to continue their education. They also have information about entrance requirements, financial-aid programs, and entry-level job opportunities in the areas where they might be attending school. Sometimes counselors work in drug and alcohol abuse programs as well as in the programs for high school dropouts or teenage parents Sources: .Microsoft Encarta 2007 1993-2006 Microsoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. (changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/behavioral_theory.htm - 20k ) www.essortment.com/all/guidancecounsel_rjkv.htm - 13k Read More