Approaches to Psychology and Ethics - Essay Example

?Task 1 Using examples of relevant studies where appropriate, describe the 3 psychological approaches of psychoanalytic, behaviourist and humanistic psychology that serve to explain different aspects of human behaviour.( operate and classical behaviour, little Albert) Outline the main assumptions of these approaches and construe an analysis based on the relevant studies that illustrate the validity of these approaches. According to Walker, Payne, Smith and Jarrett (2007) Psychology is study of human behaviour and complex emotions. Human is a social animal and his social construct consists of various interrelated factors that affects his behaviour, reactions and actions. This is one of those areas of studies which receives much attention from scholars and researchers and is evolving rapidly. There different approaches of the psychological studies such as cognitive approach, evolutionary approach, socio-cultural approaches, humanistic approach, behavioural approach, psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach and others (Walker et al, 2007). All the approaches of psychology can be linked with each other as these study different aspects of feelings and emotion within a social context of an individual. Social psychological research studies the psychological aspects in social settings. Social cognitive studies are amalgamation of the social psychological research and cognitive approach wherein beliefs of an individual is studied within his social world. Cognitive approach is based on beliefs of individuals whereas cognitive behavioural approaches study behaviours and beliefs together. Humanistic and narrative approaches are based on lived experience of individuals in different settings. Psychodynamic approaches are based on feelings of individuals. All the approaches can be explained individually or with respect to each other. In the treatment of mental illness, behavioural processes and other psychological disorders, professionals can use one approach or mix of tow or three approaches for the best treatment of the client. Figure 1: Approaches of Psychology Source: Walker et al, 2007:5 Psychoanalytic Approach This approach originated through the disagreements psychologists had over the behavioural theories. One of the prominent contributors in this approach is Sigmund Freud. Freud treated various patients suffering from mental disorders by the use of conversation methods over a period of time. This is based on the assumption of “unconscious conflicts, motives, and defences” of the client which is not otherwise expressed in normal social circumstances. In the same process patient's self-knowledge also got improved. Freud’s theories are based on the psychoanalytical concepts that focus on the ‘unconscious internal conflicts’ of the clients. Freud argues that the unconscious awareness of the client consists of his desires, thoughts and memories of lifetime particularly the early life experiences. There are various contributors who expanded psychoanalytical approach like Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Heinz Kohut, and others (Maitland & Hannah, 2008, p. 45). According to Maitland & Hannah (2008) this brought changes in thought and process of psychoanalytical approaches. These are also described as psychodynamic approach.  Behaviourist Approach Behaviourist approach roots back from the time of Aristotle, Locke Thorndike, Skinner and many others. This theory ignores the genetics theories and determines behaviour of an individual purely on the based on assumptions of his environment and experience. According to Maitland & Hannah (2008), “The behavioural approach focuses on measuring and recording observable behaviour in relation to the environment. Behaviourists think behaviour results from learning. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov trained dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a tone, demon- strating stimulus-response learning. (Maitland & Hannah, 2008, p. 45)” Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs are used in understanding human behaviour in various stages of his life. This hierarchy consists of basic needs of food, shelter and sex which can be categorised as physiological needs. Safety needs are the second needs from the bottom that consist of family, health, property, security and earning needs. Love and belonging needs are fulfilled by friends and family. This category also consists of the need of sexual intimacy. When these three needs are fulfilled, individual look for esteem needs. The top level of motivation comes from the self-actualisation stage. At each level of the stage, the motivational factors for the individual will differ from the individual belonging to different level. Humanistic Psychology Approach This theory originated in the process of disagreement of the behaviourists and psychoanalysts. Psychologists like Maslow, Heisenberg, Rogers and many others assumed that human behaviour is different from the animal behaviour due to certain qualities of human. These qualities are based on will of an individual to grow further that determines his behaviour and mental processes. As per this approach humans are growth seeking animals with the abilities to solve their problems on their own. This makes them different from other animals (Maitland & Hannah, 2008, p. 46). Task 1.2 Evaluate the 3 approaches chosen above. Evaluation can include supporting evidence and/or theoretical view points that offer some form of assessment either positive or negative of the value and contribution of the approaches to our understanding of human behaviour) All the approaches chosen in this study have significant evidences of producing results in various treatment processes. Psychoanalytical approach was used for mental disorders and provided evidences of improvement of patients. Behaviouristic approaches are used for the treatment of addictions and other psychological problems. Humanistic approaches are used in various psychological and other human behaviour related fields to determine behaviour and motivation of individuals in social groups. These approaches have contributed to the overall understanding of human behaviour in different contexts. However these approaches have their own assumptions, advantages and drawbacks. These are discussed below: Psychoanalytical approach Psychoanalytical approach is a thorough study of the behaviour of a client (Burger, 2008). It is a time taking and tedious process which aims at raising the unconscious content of human mind. This encourages client for free talk about his or her life and gives more control to the client. Behaviourist Approach This is a theory based on empirical evidences. This has proven record in the therapeutic procedures. However it depends on therapists’ interpretation of problems of observed behaviour and is sometimes questionable by the researchers and scholars (Burger, 2008). Humanistic Psychology Approach According to Schneider, Bugental and Pierson (2001) this theory looks at the client as a whole. This is a holistic theory and stresses on the holism. This theory recognizes the role of interpersonal relationship of client and gives account of the collective world client shares. This theory is broad and deep. This theory is based on various assumptions regarding human nature (Burger, 2008) and it lacks in empirical evidences and scientific reliance to justify the outcomes (Schneider, et al, 2001). Task 2 Discuss the use of animals in psychological research with examples from studies and consider the ethical arguments for and against their use. (Describe 2 studies involving the use of animals in psychological research that are considered ethically controversial. Discuss the arguments for and against using animals in research) According to Coon and Mitterer (2010) “Although only a small percentage of psychological studies involve animals, they include different types of research (Ord et al, 2005). Some psychologists use animal models to discover principles that apply to humans. For instance, animal studies have helped us understand stress, learning, obesity, aging, sleep, and many other topics.” (p.14) There have been several researches conducted on non-human animals such as in operant training, sensory deprivation, field studies and naturalistic observations. Coon and Mitterer (2010) further stated that psychology also helped animals as these studies allowed understanding the role of care for domestic animals and care of endangered species in zoos. “As psychological/psychoanalytic theorists and therapists we frequently find ourselves bumping into very significant philosophical issues in our work. Indeed, if we are not doing so we are probably missing out on a lot. While different psychological theories and psychotherapeutic approaches maybe founded upon differing sets of philosophical presuppositions, all such theories rest upon some epistemological and ontological assumptions, whether explicitly acknowledged or not.” (Hersch, 2001) One of the most controversial studies on psychological research was Harry Harlow on rhesus macaque monkeys through “rape rack” and artificial up-bringing of young monkeys. The results indicated abnormal social behaviour. These experiments were infamous as destruction of the social ties of the animals (Mellor, Patterson-Kane and Stafford, 2009). The other controversial experiment was conducted by Dr. Aronson. According to Rowan (1984) “The beleaguered museum announced that Dr. Aronson would retire (in August, 1977) and the cat research was terminated in favour of greater emphasis on behavioural studies in natural populations of animals in field research (Pratt, 1980)”. There were some major reasons for the protest on use of animals in laboratories. First was linked with the inhumane treatment of animals. The animals were treated inhumanly which was not required for the research. These “manipulations were cruel and ethically unacceptable” (Rowan 1984). The sex experiments were criticised majorly for the manipulations. The animal sufferings and research outcomes worth were questioned with respect to each other. However there are various arguments in favour of use of animals in psychological researches. One of the biggest supporters has been Miller who argued that animal rights can not be similar to the humans’ rights. These researches are also beneficial for animals and understanding animal behaviour too. Rowan (1984) explains “use of animal in psychological research is usually not perceived as a major problem”. There are certain studies on animals which are particularly important in the treatment of human psychological problems such as concept of learned helplessness and its application and treatment of depression problems. (Rowan, 1984) Task 3: Discuss the difficulties in the implementation of ethical guidelines in human and animal psychological research. (The focus is on the DIFFICULTIES in implementation. Answer should include some reference to specific guidelines/issues and why they may be difficult to put into practice) According to Goodwin (2009) American Psychological Association explains that the study on animal should be weighed for scientific value and degree of risk to the participants. The scientific purposes are divided in four categories. These are as follows: “increase knowledge of the process underlying the evolution, development, maintenance, alteration, control or biological significance of behaviour; determine the replicability and generality of prior research; increase understanding of the species under study or provide results that benefit the health or welfare of humans or other animals.” (APA, 1985 as cited by Goodwin, 2009) There are some basic differences of animal and human. There are various animal welfare groups that argue that what can not be done on humans should not be carried out on animals whereas other group argues that rights of human and animals can not be compared (Weiten, 2008). The ethical guidelines of psychological researchers consist of lists of do’s and don’ts such as “do not harm, accurately describe the risks to potential participants, voluntary participation, maintain confidentiality, minimize discomforts, do not invade privacy, remove misconceptions, provide results to the participants and treat participants with dignity and respect” (Coon and Mitterer, 2010). However in the case of animals, only two factors of guidelines can be applicable i.e. do not harm, minimise discomfort and treat the participants with respect and dignity. All the other guidelines can not be applied in the case of animals like accurately describe the risks to potential participants (Weiten, 2008). Since animals lack the understanding of potential risk and harm unless they are into certain circumstances and there is no way to explain or make them understand of the potential harms. The question of voluntary participation from the animals is irrelevant. They can not understand what changes or benefits particular results may bring to the society at the cost of their freedom and will. Similarly the confidentiality, privacy, issues of misconceptions and providing results to the participants are not relevant in the case of animal experiments. Animals given a chance might never prefer for experiments on them particularly those which can have negative impact. Reference: Banyard P and Flanagan C (2006) Ethical Issues and Guidelines in Psychology, Roultedge Modular Psychology Series Burger, J M (2008) Personality, Cengage Learning, CA Coon D and Mitterer J O (2010) Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to mind and behaviour, Cengage Learning Goodwin, J (2009) Research in Psychology: Methods and Design, John Wiley and Sons Hersch, E. L. (2001). Making Our Philosophical Unconscious More Conscious: a Method of Exploring the Philosophical Basis of Psychological Theory. Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis, 9(2), 165+. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035231612 Mellor, D.J, Patterson-Kane E and Stafford, K J (2009) The Sciences of Animal Welfare, Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, John Wiley and Sons Maitland, L. L., & Hannah, P. (2008). AP Psychology, 2008-2009 (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved January 11, 2011, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=116455536 Rowan, A N (1984) Of mice, models, and men: a critical evaluation of animal research, SUNY Press, Nature Schneider, K J, Bugental, J F T and Pierson, J F (2001) The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research, and Practice, Sage Walker, J, S. Payne, P, Smith and N Jarrett (2007) Psychology for Nurses and the Caring Professions, Open University Press, McGraw-Hill: Berkshire Weiten, W (2008) Psychology : Themes and Variations, Cengage Learning, Read More