Political Science - Palestine and Orientalism - Essay Example

Political science. Palestine and Orientalism In 1978, Edward said, a of English and comparative literature, published a book d 'Orientalism', producing a new viewpoint concerning Islamic world and creating sensation, as many authors, who were inspired by his book, reflected upon his ideas. It is possible to say that Said set up a basis for further Islamic studies. In the present paper I would like to examine European and American literature about Palestine, which reflects upon the idea of Orientalism. In his scientific inquiry, Said combined Palestinian passion and academic intelligence so that they reinforced each other. In his study Said blended political polemic and literary excursion. He writes: "The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe's greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other" (Said, 1979, pp.1-2) Said claims that Orientalism is an academic area which causes interest in a variety of academic institutions, because all teachers, sooner or later begin to research Orient and apply their knowledge in the areas of their competence. Said holds that since the end of eighteenth century the scholarly and academic meanings of Orientalism have been quite 'politically correct' and the related efforts have been restricted. Furthermore, Said believes that Orientalism reflects Western style of domination and is close-knit with Western mind, usually related to perceiving Orient as a 'younger brother' or 'poorer kin'. Said holds that the antagonistic political relationship between the Sast and the West lies in the earliest development the struggle between Islam and Christianity. According to Said, Orientalism, which presents Christian world as 'higher', is used as a demonstration of European power and is seen as a comparative theory, in which two eternal rivals - the East and the West - make an 'argument' with predicted conclusion which is to sum up that European beliefs and culture are more humanistic and more suitable and more appropriate for harmonious development of an individual. Similarly to other '-isms', Orientalism has been ill-treated from the ancient times up to the present. From the other angle of view, Orientalism is a natural movement, whose toughness is quite sufficient in its universal authenticity. This movement is a product of synergy, which takes place among different studies, accumulated by different followers, who are interested in one of the richest world cultures, and Oriental culture. Moreover, Said's study has itself caused a number of responses, either positive or negative. Lewis attempted to criticize Said's approach -in particular, in his article ' The question of Orientalism', which defended Middle Eastern studies, and in particular, Palestinian studies. On the other hand, Lewis was a newcomer to the United States, and his refutation - a forceful defense of the European and Palestinian traditions (which sometimes converts into an attack) - did not canceled Said's complaints about the problems and complications of American Middle Eastern studies. Lewis, for instance, writes that, in fact, Europe hasn't yet experienced (or probably, hasn't noticed) such considerable influence of Orientalism on its tradition. Lewis's main notes were following: 1) Firstly, it would be wrong to claim that Oriental studies are limited to the study of Muslim culture, while in fact Biblical research is an essential and substantial element or Orientalism. Palestine as the country of diverse religions supports both religious doctrines, so it needs more profound inquiry than Said has done. 2) Secondly, there is no doubt that an identifiable part of Western studies was stimulated by either political or religious propaganda "and appeared throughout the ages with distorted images of Islam, the East and its cultures; however, this movement cannot be termed "Orientalism", rather it is "False Orientalism" (Lewis, 1982, p.254). This 'False Orientalism', applied to the studies of Islam in Palestine, doesn't take into account cultural diversity. 3) "Third, if one accepts durability as a standard of authenticity - Thomas Carlyle uses this standard to prove the authenticity of the Prophet Mohammed and Islam in his Heroes" (ibid) - and Hegel's approach that all truth should be developed, Orientalism could not have lasted for such a long time and perfected had it been based merely upon deception and fabrication, and it also relates to the Israel-Palestinian conflict. Martin Kramer, on the contrary, attempting in his study 'Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America' to fit the idea of Orientalism into the scientific criteria, finds numerous logical fallacies and the weakness of argument: the author finds Said's argument insufficient, because he never tried to explore and examine the specific development of Middle Eastern studies in the United States. "Peoples of the region - first and foremost, the Palestinians, followed by other Arabs and Muslims - would rise up against the hegemony of the United States and its clients, especially Israel" (Kramer, 2001, p.45). Thus, Said's argument about the dominance of Europe is unsubstantiated, due to the revolt of Palestinians, who try to resist external influences, which has been lasting for more than ten years. Zionist movement, which strives to establish Christian dominance in Palestine, is imperialistic, and, as Said claims, is based upon fabrication, but it would be wrong to state that Muslim countries are alike in this dimension. Naturally, Kramer recognizes Said's contribution to the whole cultural science, yet he highlights the superficiality of Said's study due to his ignorance concerning the historical basis of Orientalism, such as the roots of Palestinian conflict, which started at the Age of the Crusades and has been lasting for centuries. Kramer also reflects upon the idea of westernization and Christianization of Palestine, which is influenced by both Muslim and Christian world, yet Muslim culture is still the basis of the state, so the fall of Islam in Palestine will finally lead to the destruction of the state. One more important issue, which corresponds to great extent to the previous one is the complex of inferiority, which occurs in those who belong to the Orient. Fanon in his literary work entitled 'The wretched of the Earth', highlights two major responses of the colonized race to the alleged 'inferiority' of their culture. Fanon outlined two basic responses of the colonized subject to the perceived "inferiority of his culture". The colonized person either "takes every opportunity of unfavorably criticizing his own national culture, or else takes refuge in setting out and substantiating the claims of that culture in a way that is passionate but rapidly becomes unproductive" (Fanon, 1963, p.236). That is to say, if the colonized subject swings from self-sufficience to self-hatred, then this subject is likely to swing from hidden envy to resistance towards the Western culture. After the full liberation such nations usually try to concentarte on the rebirth of their own cultural traditions and try to increase the interest to their history, which leads finally to the national audaciousness, as one might notice nowadays in Palestine that promotes Islam. . Such nations can even make a claim about their national or racial superiourity and national power, which finally transform into the hatred for the foreign, which is also noticeable in Palestine, and in its current cultural policing of restriction and limitation. Jonah Blank, a keen historian, whose area of competence is Islamic studies, supports the idea of reconciliation of the West and the East. One of the basic premises of his study entitled 'Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity among the Daudi Bohras' is a belief in the ability of both 'sides' to coexist peacefully, especially as it refers to traditional Islam and Western modernity and globalization. Blank writes a lot about the history of Palestine, and to some extent attempts to justify the actions of Israelis: "The Jewish pioneers did not steal the Land from the Arabs. They purchased the Land at highly inflated prices from absentee landlords living outside the Land. As the Jews worked the Land, it began to prosper". In spite of his sympathetic attitude towards Palestinian Muslim and the acceptance of their uprising, Blank still supports orientalistic views of Said, which refer to the approach to the Palestinians as to the younger and less mature brother, who acts rashly, whereas 'the elder brother', being wiser, tries to justify and to protect the younger brother from his own impulsive actions. In this discourse, Blank bitterly tells about the most popular 'Western' misperceptions of the Eastern world, such as the ideas that the Bible is a food for thought, while the Koran is a food for no-thought, because of its strictness and specific organization. Towards the end of his study, Blank writes that is extremely hard for Europeans to understand Palestine and its semi-Arabic roots, so Europe (and Great Britain as the state which was directly involved into the conflict) simply tries to change incomprehensible by supporting the viewpoint of Israel, as Said suggested twenty-five years ago. D.Cohen, as a person who lived in Palestine for quite a long time, produces quite objective argument in his study entitled 'From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'. One might notice that the author longs to achieve equality in his study by comparing Islam and Christianity. On the one hand, Palestinian Islam is a doctrinal basis for everyday life, describes traditions and customs. On the other hand, Koran, a holy book of Islam has no relation to current laws and to jurisdiction, so those scientists who claim that Palestinian haven't yet developed valuable and self-sufficient legislative basis, simply use superficial arguments which are associated with social life. "Jesus became one of the many teachers and reactionaries who toured Palestine at that time, preaching a philosophy of life which at times was viewed as adverse to that of Judaism's leaders. In one sense, Christianity grew out of the dissatisfaction that many Jews felt with their self-serving priests and leaders under Roman rule" (Cohen, 1987, p.301), - writes Cohen. Furthermore, nowadays the situation has returned and Jesus's study is still unfavorable, but for Muslim leaders. For Cohen, Palestine should be associated with Orient, not with Christian world, because the latter had lost its right to interfere into Palestinian affairs before Ottomans invaded into the country. Said's idea of Orientalism, according to Chen is irrelevant to the studies of Palestinian religions, since the issue is to narrow to fit Said's criteria. Justin McCarthy in his literary work titled 'The Population of Palestine', examines different aspects of Palestinian society. The echoe os Said's study can be seen in McCarthy's depiction of inferiority complex, which is widespread among Palestinians, who see themselves as offended and ill-treated nation. McCarthy writes: "In 1937, Arab leader, Auni Bey Abdul-Hadi said, "There is no such country [as Palestine]! 'Palestine' is a term the Zionists invented! There is no Palestine in the Bible. 'Palestine" is alien to us; it is the Zionists who introduced it." (McCarthy, 1990, p.254). The author refers to psychological issues that illustrate Muslims' aggression as a response to 'inferiority complex', imposed by the Israelis. Furthermore, he writes about the great impact of Arabian and Asian doctrines, which approve a number of Oriental religions, but not Christianity. McCarthy compares Orientalism to predator due to its disparaging political forces, which exist in contemporary Palestine. In general, McCarthy agrees with Said and even tries to use Said's ideas as a basis for his own study dealing with psychosocial effects of Orientalism, but McCarthy himself doesn't support the ideas of global Western power and puts stress upon European tyranny as an aspect of neo-colonialist mentality. Fred Gottheil narrows his research and writes about Arab immigration to Palestine as a determinant of Palestinian organization. Furthermore , he also analyzes the results of demographic revolution that took place during the Ottoman and British mandatory periods. Arab immigrants, who cultivated and promoted Islam in Palestine, were in fact, the ancestors og contemporary anti-Zionists, as Gottheil notes. Up to the middle of the 19th century there was no natural increase of population, "but this began to change when modern medical treatment was introduced and modern hospitals were established, both by the the Ottoman authorities and by the foreign Christian missionaries. The number of births remained steady but infant mortality decreased. This was the main reason for Arab population growth..." (Gottheil, 2003, p.111) The demographic revolution finally led to the transformation of religious outlooks, which was also caused by economic and political factors, such as politeconomical disparity, which slowed the general development of the country and made Palestines seek aid in the Opriental world, which by that time had become close-knit to Palestine. Due to the fact that Palestine was closer to educational centers that the other Eastern countries, many Arabs were attaracted by a wonderful chance to get a good education in the 'Muslim'friendly' country. British imperialism, however, made the country make a step backward after it had done two steps forward, in particular by educating European orientalists who viewed a culture created by such people as initially dependent, and Britain, in turn, as the engine of civilization. Johannes Fabian in his anthropological inquiry writes about the validity of Orientalism and notes that in the particular case of Palestine, Orientalism should be replaced by syncretism. He writes that Christian scheme is not as rigid as it is known, and it even can coexist with Muslim values: "scheme was more inclusive than the secular scheme that followed, since the imperative of saving souls encouraged Christian proselytizers to maintain that even primitive "savages" were within the orbit of the mission civilisatrice, while secular thought created new categories of division based on evolutionary time rather than a salvational plan" (Fabian, 1983, p. 432). Moreover, the scholar holds that the abovementioned 'mission' was not directed to defeating Islam in Palestine, but to reasonable standardization of truth of falsehood in multicultural society. It is also important to note that traditional Catholic church defined heretics as those, who betrayed Christianity (and identified Dissenters and Nonconformists as heretics), but it didn't recognize that Muslims were heretics. With respect to the fact that Catholicism of the 17th-18th centuries sought to combat heresy, Fabian asserts that pro-Christian campaign in Palestine, run by the British government at the epoch of colonialism, based upon syncretism, but not complete dominance of European faith. For Fabian, the influence of Orientalism on Palestine is overstated, due to the tolerance of the Christian church. Gideon Biger in his article 'Where was Palestine The Palestinian myth' supports not only the scintific idea of Orintalism, but orientalistic political approach as well. The scholar views Palestinians as people, who haven't already realized their affiliation with Palkestinian nation; and in fact they have no national idea. Furthermore, supporting Jewish side of the conflict, Biger manifestly claims that Palestinian national identity is merely a myth. Moreover, he writes that Arabs were those who created that myth by claiming that Palestinians had inhabited Palestine ''from time immemorial' until Jews displaced them. Biger states: "How can people struggle for their nation, when most of them do not know the meaning of the word The people are in great need of a "myth" of imagination. The myth of nationality would create "identity" and "self-respect" (Biger, 1981,p. 157). In his article, Biger constructs a strong argument, referring to the ancient history of Palestine, including the events, described in the Bible - such as the establishment of Jerusalem by King David in contemporary Palestine, which was known as 'the promised land' at that time. As one might assume, the reviewed literature presents diverse attitudes towards the Islamic culture and this diversity tends to increase due to the growth of scientific interest to the mystic Orient. To sum up, I would like to say that the majority of scholars, who researched Palestine, highlight their sympathetic attitude towards the nation that has been separating from the Western culture and European influenced for more than fifteen years. Nowadays, not merely anthropologists and political scientists, but also psychologists and psycholinguists are researching this field and theorizing the meaning of the Orient in the world, and lots of them are seek to justify Palestinian national idea by researching ancient languages and cultures. Works cited 1) Biger, G. Where was Palestine The Palestinian myth, AREA (Journal of the Institute of British Geographers, 1981, Vol 13, No. 2, pp. 153-160. 2) Blank, J. Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity among the Daudi Bohras. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. 3) Cohen, D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987. 4) Fabian, J. Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object. New York: Columbia UP, 1983. 5) Fanon, F. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press 1963 6) Gottheil, F. The Smoking Gun: Arab Immigration into Palestine. New York: Routledge, 2003 7) Kramer, M. Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America. Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001 8) Lewis, B. The Question of Orientalism. New York Review of Books, June 24, 1982. 9) McCarthy, J. The Population of Palestine. Columbia University Press, 1990 10) Said, E. Orientalism. New York: Vintage, 1979. Read More