List of Common Antibiotics and Types - Term Paper Example

Assignment Name Tutor Institution Date Antibiotics There are many categories of antibiotics grouping by their mode of action on the bacteria or germs. Diverse antibiotics have dissimilar ways of action and mechanism while acting as remedy to various bacterial infections. Antibiotics are restricted to treatment of bacterial infection mainly but not as the cure for the viral infections. Such mechanisms are differentiable by the nature of their functional structure or degree of affinity well notable target sites noted in the bacterial cells. The common groups include the antibiotic that inhibit cell wall synthesis, inhibitor of protein synthesis, inhibit cell membrane function, and inhibits the nucleic acid synthesis and lastly those that inhibits metabolic processes. Antibiotics that act as inhibitors of cell wall manufacture and synthesis partly destroys the bacteria cell wall organisms. Human and animal cell lack cell wall and, therefore, are not affected by such antibiotics. They include penicillin, bacitracin and cephalosporin (Fuller & Armistead, 2013). Secondly, the antibiotics that inhibits the cell membrane function acts as the barriers that isolate and control the Intra- and extracellular streaming of various substances in bacterial cell structure. This process results in the eventual disruption and leakage of desirable solutes from the bacteria. Such antibiotics have weak selective process and can harm the mammalian host hence their usage is limited to certain extends. They include polymixin B or colistin (Carter, 2008). The third group acts as the inhibitors of protein manufacture. It is worth noting that protein forms a functional part of the enzymes and cellular structures. Protein production hence become very vital in the process necessary for the duplication and survival of whole types bacteria. Many groups of the antibacterial agents typically focus or target bacterial protein synthesis virtually by attaching and binding of the 30S and 50S subunits found in the intracellular ribosomes. Typical examples include lincosamides and streptogramins (Carter, 2008). The fourth group of antibiotics acts to inhibit the nucleic acid synthesis. They stop the formation of the DNA and RNA that are essential components of living organisms. The typical examples include the quinolones and metronidazole. Living organism mainly has DNA and RNA as their elementary units that undertake very significant action in their cells. And the last group consists of inhibitor of other metabolic processes that are very essential for survival of the bacterial pathogens. Such metabolic processes include including blocking of folic acid pathway. Such group entails sulfonamides. The antibiotics are not indicated for viral infections because they do not kill viruses. Antibiotics are, majorly effective on the bacteria. Moreover, the Antibiotics usually have some adverse effects or side effects including diarrhea, feeling sick and rashes amongst many other things. Use of the antibiotics when they are not prescribed may propagate the development of resistant strains in future (Fuller & Armistead, 2013). In conclusion, there are myriads of categories of antibiotics categorized by their mode of action on any particular bacteria. Antibiotics are not effective on the viral conditions due to the difference in structure of the viral germs. Viruses and bacteria have less structural similarity in common thus reducing the chances of ever having similar drug action on them. Transfusion reactions There are various types of transfusion reactions. Each transfusion reaction has its typical cause and effects on the body. While blood transfusion has many advantages on the human body, it comes with accompanied issues. The transfusion reactions are mainly grouped in two sectors that include the immediate effects and the delayed impacts (Barash, 2009). The immediate transfusion reactions include the transfusion-associated sepsis, non-immune-mediated hemolysis, immune-mediated hemolysis, febrile non-hemolytic reactions and air embolism. Other typical reactions include metabolic reactions, transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO) and transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). The Transfusion-associated sepsis is caused by Bacterial infection of transfused blood, and the effects includes shaking chills, Oliguria/anuria, Hemoglobinuria, and DIC. The Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions are mainly caused by an increase in blood temperature. The typical symptoms include chills and rigors. Another typical group of blood reaction is Immune-mediated hemolysis. The cause mainly arises from transfused Red blood cells interacting with pre-formed antibodies in recipient blood system. The common effects include chills, hypotension, nausea, flushing, and pain in the chest, lower back, abdomen, infusion site and dyspnea. Non-immune-mediated hemolysis is another reaction of blood that is caused by hemolysis on red blood cells due to many factors. The typical factors include Temperature associated damages that arise due to incorrect storage or even shipping temperatures process. Use of incorrect blood warming process can also lead to the condition. The impacts on the body are similar to ones notable on immune-mediated hemolysis setting. Addition of drugs and any hypotonic solutions into the blood composition also has similar consequences (Barash, 2009). Urticaria or Hives is another typical transfusion reaction that is caused by mild allergic reaction to the transfusion. The effects include hives, itching; generalized rash, erythematous macular eruption and this type of reaction do not have a fever. Anaphylactic blood transfusion reaction is caused by extreme and severe allergic reaction on the transfusion where there are systemic and gradual symptoms. The common effects include coughing, respiratory distress, vascular instability, bronchospasm, hypotension and nausea (Rudmann, 2005). Air Embolism is a reaction that occurs when air is allowed to infuse into the equipment. It can also emerge when blood is left unsecured in an open system that is infused under pressure thus causing the air bubble. The common effects include cough, chest pain, dyspnea, and Shock. Transfusion-related acute lung injury is caused by the injury on the lungs and usually happens within six hours of transfusion. The effects of the transfusion include no left atrial hypertension; Bilateral infiltrates on frontal chest x-ray, acute onset, and Hypoxemia. An example of the delayed blood transfusion impacts is the refractoriness to platelet transfusion. The cause of the transfusion reaction entails rapid clearance of the transfused platelets a condition that happens due to HLA sensitization or even other corresponding clinical causes (Rudmann, 2005). In conclusion, there are many reactions on the blood transfusion process of the recipient body. Some reactions are immediate while others take time to emerge. Most of the reactions emanate due to poor or incorrect handling of blood and varying blood contents. Pre-hospital & hospital treatment of asthma There are prescribed pre-hospital & hospital treatment of asthma. The comparison of both with the use of the nebulizer and spacer gives the notable pros and cons of each method of tackling the asthma. Pre-Hospital Treatment of asthma is mainly undertaken through a defied set of process. The set includes process of examining the patients history, assessment of the airway passage and analyzing of the respiratory condition of the patient. The pre-hospital further looks into the inherent features like vital signs, level of fatigue or even ability to speak coherently. The primary objective of the initial stage falls on the capacity of the patient to get enough oxygen. Pre-hospital always recommends the use of the beta-agonist therapy in the first phase of treatment. It further allows for the application of the anticholinergic agents of the steroids in various roles during treatment. Hospital and pre-hospital both recommends the use of the routine treatments that include the parenteral magnesium or epinephrine that are very vital in the process of treating some patients. Hospital methods also recommend the Endotracheal intubation that is a procedure entailed as the last resort and is frequently left to the patients who fall at the immediate risk of respiratory arrest level. The hospital method demand caution on the use of the treat and release approach a method that is commonly recommended at certain stages (Woollard & Advanced Life Support Group,2010). Fig 1: Spacer use Use of nebulizers and spacers are two similar methods of treating asthma. Spacers are significant because they facilitate in the delivery asthma medicine to the patient’s lungs. Many people normally experience hordes of problems while in inhaling properly. The application of the spacer allows for the effortless use of the inhaler. The device also reduces the chances of side effects. The pros of the spacers are notable. They make corresponding inhalers easy to use, very portable and very efficient. It allows sufficient entry of medicine into the lungs as compared to the other methods. They small, compact and work efficiently similar to nebulizers. Their cons are that they cannot be relied on alone. On contrary, nebulizer is a machine that creates a mist of medicine that is then breathed through the mask or even mouthpiece (Guy, 2007). The gadget is normally very efficient in delivery of large doses of medicine especially in the emergency condition. Such cases arise in the ambulance cases or the hospital. The pros of using a nebulizer are that it is more effective and assuring as compared to the spacer. It is also very useful in the treatment of mild and moderate asthma. The cons of the device are that it is not reliable for use at home. The device demands a regular servicing and improvement capacity to regulate on its working ability and principle. The nebulizer found in hospitals is more efficient as compared the kinds used at home. They have the presence of oxygen which makes them very effective(Guy, 2007). Fig 2 : Nebulizers use In conclusion, pre-hospital & hospital treatment of asthma provides the best way of tackling asthma as medical professional are always entailed. The use of nebulizer and spacer is equally important in controlling the asthma especially in home based care. Treatment of traumatic brain injury Brain injury is one of the leading causes of death or severe mental incapacity in American setting. Brain treatment has very well outlined principles, and there are enormous relative roles of hyperglycaemia on the outcomes of the treatment procedure. Proper feeding of the mind in the process of healing the traumatic brain injury is imperative while dealing with the optimization of the brain recovery process (Morganti-Kossmann, Raghupathi & Maas, 2012). The best of model of feeding the brain comes out as the main way of improving the health of the injured brain in the recovery process. In the past, people thought that a brain lying in the docile state or a coma did not require much energy but research found that such states of the brain required massive amounts of energy. Normally, most patients having traumatic brain injury exhibited extreme case of high blood sugar after their arrival in the emergency room (ER). Traditionally, doctors delivered insulin to such patients to reduce levels of sugar in their blood. According to YBI research principles, this action is very wrong . the TBI principles intimate that brain need fuel to initiate an entire healing process. According to research, this energy   fuel is not only limited to glucose since the amount of blood glucose normally varies with time. The research argues that pyruvate, lactate and ketones and beta-hydroxybutyrate are equally essential in the process. According to the research every fuel has its sole purpose in the healing of the patient’s conditions. The energy requirement also varies with age of the patients and severity of the injury. The adolescents and adults have varying energy needs and these best regards lies in the identification of the optimum level of blood sugar desirable for any group age for adequate recovery (Yao, Malhotra, & Fontes, 2012). It is very challenging and noteworthy that after trauma energy affinity changes for the patients. According to the findings, typical path physiological consequences found in the extreme head injuries are notable in mild head injuries. Research has been in progress for the past twenty years in the TBI segment, but none of the attempts have resulted in the standard treatment formula or method. The research on the appropriate amount and type of energy needed in the TBI healing process is an ongoing process that has huge impacts determining new ways of improving the recovery process from TBI. The research is funded by many stakeholders in various sectors including the major league, world boxing council and even the US Department of Defense (Morganti-Kossmann, Raghupathi & Maas, 2012). In conclusion, treatment of TBI is a highly a principled process that hugely depends on high levels of blood glucose. The condition called hyperglycemia is paramount in facilitating a quick recovery of the patient suffering from TBI. The treatment of TBI currently lies on the rehabilitation stage as there is no cure known for such conditions. The research aims at changing the current situation, and thus people diagnosed with epilepsy and other condition may have an appropriate remedy desired of them. References Morganti-Kossmann, C., Raghupathi, R., & Maas, A. (2012). Traumatic Brain and Spinal Cord Injury: Challenges and Developments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Yao, F.-S. F., Malhotra, V., & Fontes, M. L. (2012). Yao & Artusio's anesthesiology: Problem-oriented patient management. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Woollard, M., & Advanced Life Support Group (Manchester, England). (2010). Pre-hospital obstetric emergency training: The practical approach. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Guy, J. S. (2007). Pharmacology for the prehospital professional. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby. Rudmann, S. V. (2005). Textbook of blood banking and transfusion medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier, Saunders. Barash, P. G. (2009). Clinical anesthesia. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Fuller, J. R., & Armistead, J. (2013). Surgical technology: Principles and practice. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. Carter, P. J. (2008). Lippincott's textbook for nursing assistants: A humanistic approach to caregiving. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Read More