Classifications of Leadership Theories - Research Paper Example

Leadership and Innovation in the Public Service Introduction The leader’s style and approach in leading a group may be influenced by one’s upbringing, moral and ethical background, personal motivation, or the demands of the place and time. According to Levine (1995), all persons can become a leader. On the other hand, Brooks et al. (2004) mentioned that leadership does not depend upon any title or excellence in school but by simply acting as a person. Nevertheless, one must have preparation in order to become a leader in order to act positively on the complex economic and political problems and social conditions. In fact, becoming a leader of a state is not only confined with managing the affairs within the state territory, but requires cooperation and collaboration with the leaders of other nations in order to maintain peace and security. Very few leaders can be classified as selfless and made sacrifices for the people. Few individuals assume the role of the leader with no other motivation but to serve the people. True leaders recognize that the power of a leader comes from the people who can take it back. Leadership Theories The general classifications of leadership theories are the Great Man Theories, Trait Theories, Behaviorist Theories, Situational Leadership, Contingency Theory, Transactional Theory, Transformational Theory (Bolden, Gosling, & Marturano, 2003), and Servant Leadership (The Robert K. Greenleaf, 2005). Each group of theories has been developed by individuals that contribute to the enhancement of a particular theory. According to Bolden et al. (2003), the schools of thought developed under the earlier models focus more on the personal characters and behaviors of the leader. Later schools take into consideration the participation of the followers in the development of the leader (Bolden et al., 2003). The Great Man theories proposed that leaders possess some exceptional innate qualities that destined them to lead. While the Trait Theories provide a list of traits and qualities that a leader should have, the Behaviorist Theories focus on the set of behaviors of a leader. Situational Leadership provides that leadership is seen according to the situation where the leader exists and includes the tasks and goals to be accomplished, as well as the willingness of the person to attain them. Contingency Theory provides the predictive variables that would make the leadership style appropriate on certain circumstances. Transactional Theory expounds on the relationship of the leader and the governed, the benefits they derive from each other, and the reward and benefits given by the leader in exchange for the loyalty of followers. Transformational Theory focuses on the role of the leader in envisioning the transformation of the organization (Bolden et al., 2003). Servant leadership espouses that a leader is a servant to the people, with no other motivation except to serve the people (The Robert K. Greenleaf, 2005). Participative leadership refers to the involvement of other persons in decision-making and implementation of the same (Culture and Leadership, 2006). Participative leadership, also referred to democratic leadership (Spillane, 2005; Ogbonna & Harris, 2000), is a more successful kind of leadership (Ogbonna & Harris, 2000). Distributed leadership, a recent model, is the antithesis of the “heroics of leadership” wherein the leader is seen as the sole actor in leading the organization (Spillane, 2005, p. 143). Issues in Public Leadership Many studies were conducted on private organizations but they are likewise applicable in the public sector. Leadership in the public sector is critical in the current generation amidst the complex problems and issues confronting the governments on all fronts. Leadership issues entail survival of the followers, poverty or death. Leading a group also requires the application of strategic approaches to facilitate management of increasing complexity of affairs, and socio-economic and political situations. The present leader has to lead the people, know their needs, and work hard to address those needs. Maak and Pless (2006) go beyond the normal leader-follower relationship. They view the followers as stakeholders in the organization. Bringing this viewpoint to the larger context of the state, the citizens must be considered as stakeholders whose interests and rights should be considered by the leaders in policy-making. According to Maak and Pless (2006), the challenges that a leader faces include the reduction of the “complexity and uncertainty for people” and offer a future that is good and advantageous for them (p. 99). Making the numerous elements in society less complex is through legislation and issuance of policy measures. Laws and regulations create a system and order in society wherein the different factors are defined and corresponding rewards or punishments are imposed. But in the creation of laws and issuances, the followers-stakeholders must be considered. The laws to be passed by the leaders in Congress must be deliberated with adequate collaboration and consultation with the stakeholders at every stage in order to determine their positive and negative effects upon the people. Wicks et al. (1994, as cited in Maak & Pless, 2006) said that mandate for authority can be achieved in “relational leadership” (Pless and Maak, 2005, as cited in Maak & Pless, 2006) which is grounded upon “inclusion, collaboration and cooperation” with the various stakeholders who will be affected by the measure (p. 100). Having intelligent collaboration with the followers, they will support the law passed instead of working against it or seek its amendment or repeal. The same leadership approach can be applied in other governmental agencies that involve providing service or interact directly with the citizens. One leadership concern that must be addressed by leaders is how to enjoin the followers to support the agenda of the leader. The grant of reward or penalty is a leadership approach that could steer people to act according to what society deemed as good and moral and avoid acts that could cause harm to another. In UKs modernization program for the local government, the Beacon Council Scheme grants rewards for the best performing councils (Rashman & Hartley, 2002). Institutional racism, which refers to the established “racialized bodies and elite spaces in the body politic” (Puwar, 2001), should be properly addressed by the leadership in UK (p. 651). The bureaucracy and governmental agencies should be the last bastion to foster racism. When the leaders and civil servants themselves are involved with group racism, there is a problem in the leadership that involves the greater societal values. As recounted by black civil servants in UK, they are thriving in a demarcated space according to a “racial contract” (Puwar, 2001, p. 651). As early as the mid-19th century, Marx (1843, as cited in Puwar, 2001) already enunciated about the class division in state and its civil servants. He said that they were not able to transcend the class interests to which they belong. It is unlikely for senior civil servants to exhibit racism since they should be “vessels of pure reason … seen to be emblematic of an organization” (Puwar, 2001, p. 657). The black population, being “uncivilized” and “savage” (Goldberg, 1997, as cited in Puwar, 200, p. 6571) are “space invaders” (Puwar, 2001) and “disturb the white serenity” (Hall, 1992, as cited in Puwar, 2001, p. 657). The leader, according to Grint (2005) cannot be complacent during a crisis, but must be extremely focused to make decisive actions and unaffected by the prodding of skeptics. Being decisive means acting appropriately based on the current seeming crisis, which is not really such a threat. A drop in stock price may be seen as a crisis by stockholders, but as a restructuring by the CEO who must persuade the shareholders not to dispose of their shares (Grint, 2005). However, the leader may be compelled to act according to the pressure of an interest group rather than according to moral considerations. This is aptly demonstrated by the play “An enemy of the people” by Ibsen wherein the physician who advised the mayor of the public baths’ contamination was declared the enemy by the mayor (since that would affect the town’s income) and was supported by the people to keep the baths open (Grint, 2005). Leaders often take a position, said Tuchman (1996, as cited in Grint, 2005) in “march of folly,” against their interest; which maybe due to their desire to cling to power or being corrupted by it. Thus, the killing by French revolutionaries was not motivated by threat to them but by ideological predisposition to execute nobilities (Grint, 2005); or by Lenin and the Bolsheviks the threat to the state but to exterminate the enemies of the class (Mitchell, 2004, as cited in Grint, 2005). An important factor to consider here is not the ethics in leadership but the process by which decision-makers take to convince the followers to support their course of action. Confronted by such scenarios, Grint (2005) is suggesting that Trait Theory leadership has to be revisited, and that character should be accorded sufficient weight as propounded by Covey (1990), Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991) and Yukl (2005) (all cited in Grint, 2005). But using the Contingency Theory which denies the role or character of the leader in undertaking a particular action, the decision being implemented would rest upon the demands of social conditions or situation. Thus, the earlier contingency theorists expounded that one type of situation would demand for a specific type of leader (Fielder, 1967; House & Dessler, 1974, as cited in Grint, 2005). Later contingency theorists added the element of “correctness” in decision-making, in that, a “‘correct’ response is determined by the correct analysis of the situation” Grint, 2005, p. 1470). The current sweeping phenomenon in the Middle-eastern countries and northern Africa (e.g. Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Yemen, Bahrain, etc.) is a leadership issue that must be considered in this context. The Muslim populace perceived to be generally conforming to tradition is rising up against their long recognized leaders. The leaders in these countries maintain themselves in power in the belief that they are the ones destined to lead the people, otherwise, internal conflicts would result. The followers, on the other hand perceive that their leaders are leading them for a long time without delivering their socio-political and economic needs. Since the leaders are not addressing the reforms the people need, the latter wanted to have a new leader who is willing to serve the people. The leaders use authoritarian approach, imposing their will upon the people. But if servant leadership is being utilized by the leaders, the crisis could not have occurred. Distributed leadership is practiced in democratic states. The elements of this type of leadership are: a) sharing of leadership among groups or interacting persons, b) opening of leadership boundary (inclusion of more groups into the leadership network), and c) distribution of expertise among the different groups (Bennett, Wise & Woods, 2003). The leaders involved in the uprising have concentrated leadership unto themselves, without tapping the experts from the various people’s groups. Sharing political leadership with the leaders of ethnic and religious groups would balance power allocation and would maintain the status quo. Research is always an essential element in knowing the relationship of the different variables in society and how they interact with each other. As mentioned by Bennis and O’Toole (2005), the goals of one group must be balanced along with the needs of other constituencies. The authors expounded on how the faculty members of one profession utilized the most appropriate research model to improve upon their own profession (Bennis & O’Toole, 2005). The scientific approaches used by law schools with adequate quantitative research and documentation, and that of physics schools with its pragmatic scientism are the best research techniques (Bennis & O’Toole, 2005). Although Bennis and O’Toole (2005) discussed on how the business school can improve itself by applying the models used by other professional schools, their discourse is relevant in the public sector leadership. The leader then should adapt the best practices in other systems if they would benefit the constituents. The US led invasion of Iraq in 2003 could be justified under the Contingency model as being the appropriate action by US and its allies based on the intelligence report that Iraq was piling weapons for mass destruction (WMD). The Congruence Model which a development in the Contingency Theory suggests that the correctness of an action can be determined by three inputs: a) the environment, b) available resources, and c) history of the organization (Nadler & Tuschman, 1997, as cited in Grint, 2005). Using the third element in the analysis of a situation, Rowlinson and Hassard (2000, as cited in Grint, 2005) said that the history of the organization if reconstructed would only justify or suit the “needs of the present” (p. 1470). Resources would refer to their sufficiency to defeat the enemy, while the environment is a much wider consideration that includes complex variables, which can be “problems” or “irrelevancies”, that the leader should consider (Grint, 2005, p. 1470). Social Constructionism is a model of analysis that begun with Kuhn (1962) who expounded on the works of C. Wright Mills (1959) and Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) “The social construction of reality” (Grint, 2005). The social construction of reality expounds on situations considered as “true” from among the opposing “accounts of ‘reality’” (Grint, 2005, p. 1471). The determination of the existence of the WMD in Iraq had not undergone direct objective analysis, and the issue hinges on the inability of the groups concerned to convince themselves and other countries that such weapons exist or not (Grint, 2005). The invasion was based upon an unconfirmed report or the inability to confirm the information. Knowledge and accounts which are considered as true, concluded Grint (2005), are properties of specific groups and therefore, “knowledge is never neutral, divorced from ideology” (1472). The leader must be able to show his authentic self (Goffee & Jones, 2005). Authenticity, however, should not be determined by the leader himself but by the followers (Goffee & Jones, 2005). The authentic self must be managed by the person to enhance it. It is not innate, otherwise, it cannot be improved by the leader (Goffee & Jones, 2005). The inability to manage the authentic self will get a person into trouble as he or she moves up into the higher echelon of leadership (Goffee & Jones, 2005). Goffee and Jones (2005) explained that it “is not the product of pure manipulation” but is a reflection of the facets of the inner self. The great leader then knows which trait he or she will disclose to whom and at what moment (Goffee & Jones, 2005). Such kind of leader can adapt to any situation and type of people without losing one’s identity. That leader is tempered with difficult experiences that he or she fully understands what is expected from him or her by the people (Goffee & Jones, 2005). This kind of leadership requires consistency between one’s words and deeds (Goffee & Jones, 2005). For the followers to communicate with such leader, the latter must find a common ground so that the former can relate with the latter (Goffee & Jones, 2005). The leader has to assume different roles at different times, but all must be part of the authentic self according to who the audience is and what is demanded at the time, and not to the extent of becoming a more complex person. Moreover, the chosen parts must conform with the social and organizational norms required at the time. It may be easier to implement changes within a confined environment of the private organization. But in the larger system like a country, changing the cultural practices and norms would be more difficult. In the public sector, a decision to implement a zoning to make a location a purely business area would displace the residents. Area zoning is a good urban planning strategy that would enhance the security of the businesses and the residents. It would also boost the economy since allocating an area for businesses would invite more investors. However, physical displacement of the residents would also entail economic displacement and increased cost of living for those relocated to far relocation sites. Leaders should also be change managers. Modern public leaders, as reported in a survey, are adapting the best practices from the private sector to the effect necessary changes (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005, as cited in Karp & Helgo, 2008). However, the private sector itself has shown a very low program success of less than 10 percent with regard to change management (IBM, 2004, as cited in Karp & Helgo, 2008). Such failure is attributed to lack of understanding by the leaders of the complexities of the situations they encounter (Karp & Helgo, 2008). Diefenbach (2007, as cited in Karp & Helgo, 2008) explained that the issue does not involve existing bureaucratic structures or approaches. Rather, the change should include modification of the “mindset, emotions, values and assumptions” (Karp & Helgo, 2008, p. 86). Leading under a chaotic change scenario involves affecting the pattern of human interaction (Karp & Helgo, 2008). Chaotic change, as described by Karp and Helgo (2008), is the change effected in the organization wherein the internal and external factors involved are too complex that the outcome is difficult to predict (Karp & Helgo, 2008). A leader must be able to adapt new values and change one’s mindset to properly manage the public sector. Conclusion Leadership theories were formulated in an attempt to identify the factors that made the leader and to determine the rationale and elements that influenced the leader in taking a particular position or decision. They are relevant in the past as well as in the present in the light of the recent international events that changed the political leadership in nations through the interference or invasion of outside forces. Thus, former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein was deposed from power under the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. The US leadership convinced the leaders of other nations of the importance of the invasion by presenting an intelligence report that details the presence of WMD. UK, Australia and Poland supported US but opposed by France, New Zealand, Germany and Canada. However, the weapons supposedly stockpiled by Hussein was never found after the invasion. The report from whence the invasion was based may be faulty, or was concocted to justify another political agenda of the US. But with that event, a leader was thrown out of power and around 250,000 civilians died (Stokes, n.d.). Viewing the event under the lens of Social Constructionism, the US had acted based on a threat posed by Iraq to humanity with its WMD. An analogy can be presented in the deaths of around 1000 Shia pilgrims (on northern Baghdad bridge) who acted haphazardly under the belief that a suicide bomber is with the group (Grint, 2005). They had constructed the threat and acted according to the perceived threat. But in this case, no one was leading the group and each of the pilgrims acted individually. On the other hand, in the US led invasion of Iraq, leaders deliberated for some time. Further surveillance could confirm the WMD, but US did not want further verification since its agenda was to convince other leaders to support its cause. The blunders committed by leaders can only be fully analyzed objectively at hindsight, as in the French execution of the nobilities or the invasion of Iraq. But at the time that they were happening, the participants in the events were charged with high emotions and tension. Overthrowing the monarchial system in France may not entail the execution of the nobilities since they can be simply incarcerated or exiled somewhere else. But the revolutionaries at that time had the intention of eliminating the noble class and this can be attained by killing them. Using the different leadership theories, different justifications can be arrived at on the actions or positions taken by the leaders. The invasion of Iraq can be justified using the Contingency Theory since based on the context or information available at that time, attacking Iraq would be the most correct action. The correctness of the action is seen only by the group that supported the invasion, but inappropriate and not justifiable by those who opposed the action. The leadership of the United Nations viewed the action as against the UN charter and therefore illegal (Iraq war, 2004). The UN Security Council likewise provided no authorization to attack but passed on November 8, 2002 Resolution No. 1441 that called for an inspection of such weapons (The War on Iraq, 2007). But despite the position of the UN leadership, US and its supporters were able to proceed with their planned agenda. While the Great Man theory may no longer be as appropriate now with regard to public leadership, the Trait Theories can serve as guide for the people in choosing the right leader. This model presented well-studied traits that would reflect a truly democratic, ethical and servant leader who takes the position not for personal interests but for the upliftment of the people, society and humanity. Knowing the traits the candidates for an elective position have will provide the people a set of criteria to gauge the capabilities of the candidates. References Bennett, N., Wise, C., & Woods, P. (2003, Spring). Distributed leadership. National College for School Leadership. Bennis, W.G. & O’Toole, J. (2005, May). How business schools lost their way. Harvard Business Review. Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A. & Dennison, P. (2003, June). A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks. 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