Developing Managerial Skills in Engineers and Scientists - Case Study Example

 Developing Managerial Skills in Engineers and Scientists Workplace learning has long been a topic of hot debate among researchers, particularly post industrialization - during the 20th and 21st century. The accelerated significance and ever widening research in this area has managed to bring to the fore various key issues related to training and development of employees in an organizational setting. Questions and doubts have been raised and answered and the responses critically analyzed, regarding the significance, influence and impact of training of employees in an organizational setting. Some of the key issues that has garnered overriding significance include the identification and development of various skill types as suitable to the organizational goals – ranging from soft to hard skills, training aimed at providing general work related education to the employees, as well as a range of vocational skills, and other skills related to literacy of the workforce, multi-tasking, general knowledge about the assigned work etc. Apart from such skills, considerable importance has been given to the theoretical aspects as well. The deliberation over the types of skills which needs to be learnt but cannot be taught in an organizational or a classroom setting has prevailed generating varied outcomes. Thus the issue of conceptualizing proper training methods with respect to work related learning is divided into various categories depending on the type of training to be provided – i.e. formal or informal; the type of organizations – i.e. the industry to which they belong; as well as the overall organizational goals and objectives. There has also been observed an unprecedented surge in the types of learning / training in organizations ranging from formal to informal, tacit to self-directed, experimental to incidental and reflective learning among various others thus further aggravating the debates related to workplace learning. Furthermore, there is a growing consensus among the researchers that it is the individuals rather than the organizational structures that drives a business and hence investing in policies aimed at human resource development is viewed as a rational decision on the part of the management. However, the debates related to whether all that needs to be learned can be taught and whether there are certain skills which are simply indispensible but can hardly be taught in a formalized setting. This paper attempts to deliberate on the issues related to training and development of human resources in organizations and in the process, discusses the various types of trainings such as formal, informal, tacit, self directed, etc., in order to ascertain the types of skills which can and cannot be acquired through training, thus addressing the underlying issue. In order to clearly distinguish the various types of trainings and the resultant impact on the organizational workforce, the case of Hong Kong Dragon Airlines is taken into consideration, which would be used to compare and contrast the types of training made available to the cabin crew, against the literature on the types of training. The same will then be used to assess and evaluate the influence of training on employees, and the types of training provided to employees i.e. formal and informal, and whether or not there are skills which are inevitable yet impossible to teach in a formal setting. Not everything that needs to be learnt can be taught Workplace training has become one of the most common features across all organizations. The corporate world, today, regardless of the type and size of organization, applies and implements a range of policies aimed at training and development of its workforce with a view to aligning their activities with the overall goals and objectives of their respective organizations. However, the basic question that remains largely unanswered even today, is whether all that needs to be learned can be taught through such formalized training programs adopted by organizations? The answer to this question is no. Not everything that needs to be learnt can be taught. Organizational training primarily comprises of imparting knowledge and increasing awareness about a certain organizational task or activity which the employees are expected to undertake as a part of their job. However aspects such as skills and attitudes which are of equal significance in the accomplishment of a given organizational task can hardly be taught. Hence it can be safely stated that knowledge which forms the basis of all organizational trainings, is easier to teach as compared to skills and attitudes. For instance, training can help the employees to understand the various technicalities associated with flying a passenger aircraft, but the actual experiences of the pilot while maneuvering the plane through turbulent weather can never be taught. It is something to be experienced and come only through practical exposure. No amount of classroom training can help prepare the prospective pilots in dealing with situations such as these. Although through technology various situations can now be replicated, but experience can only be gained through practical exposure and cannot be taught in a formal setting. According to Badawy (1995): “Teaching someone how to manage is roughly equivalent to teaching someone who has never been on a plane, how to fly. It is impossible to duplicate the emotions you experience when navigating through turbulent weather” (Pp. 172) Various theory based as well as empirical research conducted in the past suggest that a significant proportion of learning actually occurs on the job (Dawes et al., 2000) in ways which are far more informal and have little or nothing to do with formal training, such as through experience, day to day work activities, interaction between groups and group members as well as other similar communities (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Learning from such everyday experiences affords the employees to gain tacit knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995; Busch, 2008) which is believed to be one of the most vital and inevitable aspects of organizational learning and which clearly distinguishes the successful managers from the others Argyris, 1999; Wenger & Snyder, 2002). The term tacit knowledge refers to knowledge which cannot be expressed openly or taught in a formalized setting. It cannot be codified and is actually knowledge / information which is implicit in nature and possessed by those who have practical rather than theoretical experience. It cannot be written, stored or passed on to individuals but is gained through experience and practice (Busch, 2008). In a nutshell, certain managerial skills or knowledge which are extremely vital for conducting day to day activities in any organization, cannot be taught regardless of their significance. They are implicit in nature and the only way to acquire it is through practice / practical exposure and experience which allows the individuals / employees to put their theoretical knowledge to practice and gain experience from it. As a consequence it can be assumed that while certain management concepts, theories as well as principles can be taught / learned in formal setting managerial skills on the other hand, can only be learned through personal experience and by translating learned behavior into action. No amount of training can thus help the individuals in acquiring such tacit knowledge or managerial skills. They can only be learned through practical exposure and experience. Since such skills cannot be taught, it is safe to state that there exist certain skills which despite being indispensible, and inevitable, cannot be learned / taught in a formalized environment. Thus the above mentioned statement “Not everything that needs to be learnt can be taught” holds true in such a scenario. However this does not dismiss the fact that organizations today, indulge in large scale activities focused on training and development of critical skills of their workforce in a bid to achieve their organizational goals and objectives. For instance, in the case of Hong Kong Dragon Airlines Ltd a Hong Kong based commercial carrier, the employees are given comprehensive training including theoretical knowledge as well as practical experience in the form of mock drills aimed at helping the employees learn critical aspects of their jobs. The training is specifically designed to prepare the employees in executing their jobs in the most professional and accurate manner possible. The combination of well structured theoretical lectures as well as practical exercises such as mock drills help in preparing the employees in times of emergency as well as other critical service procedures. However despite such rigorous training it must be acknowledged that replicating the experience, emotions or dilemma of the pilots during turbulence is a humanly impossible task which can never be recreated in an artificial training. Furthermore accidents almost invariably occur in the most unexpected situations and are hardly planned. No amount of training could have prepared the pilots for confronting and dealing with situations such as the tragic 9/11 incident. Aviation accidents, although rare, is a global phenomenon. Although in present times, sophisticated and state of the art technology is readily available certain managerial skills and reflexes, which are inherent to human nature cannot be taught. Also, almost all types of jobs require managerial skills such as presence of mind, alertness, communication skills etc, which cannot be taught, but are inherent and can be only be learned through experience. Furthermore, Dragon Air employs a novel training method: the in-flight cabin crew mentoring. This facility enables the trainees to observe closely the activities undertaken in-flight and gain practical experience in the process. They are also encouraged to ask queries which are discussed and answered by the mentors. However, there is often a common complaint among the trainees their queries are not always answered especially when the assigned flight is “too busy” or when the mentor is not in a ‘good mood’. This defeats the very purpose of training, with the result that the trainees may not receive adequate knowledge of what is expected of them while executing their duties. In such situations, personal characteristic traits such as presence of mind, alertness and instincts come into play and can help them in avoiding unpleasant situations. In the aviation sector there are various factors which are uncontrollable such as weather, mechanical or technical error, or sabotage by external forces etc. which are likely to be the main cause of accidents. However according to statistics, pilot error is considered to be one of the most common causes of accidents (plancrashinfo.com, 2010). According to Lambe (2002): “…the concept of standard solutions to standard problems does not fit the needs of professionals in practice” In situations of crisis, it is the presence of mind that comes to the rescue rather than formal training. For instance, in the recent case of a U.S. Airline jetliner, with 155 people on board, crashed into the Hudson river, all of them were safely rescued including the pilots with no casualties. Such a feat was possible purely on account of the presence of mind displayed by the pilots. An accident which could have been proved fatal resulting in deaths of hundreds of individuals was successfully averted, by alertness and sheer grit shown by the pilot (NY Times, 2009; NBC New York, 2009). Furthermore according to Murphy and Calway (2008): “…when education focuses on competency (particularly technical competence) then learning is likely to be a superficial level.” Hence skills acquired in classrooms may not be helpful in certain situations and it is practical / tacit knowledge or inherent skills that come to the rescue. Skills such as tacit knowledge, intuition, instincts, attitudes etc are hardly taught in classrooms and although feats such as these are as rare as the accidents itself, it is clear from the available facts and occurrences that the skills which help in averting accidents of such magnitude or the lack thereof, which cause such accidents are not taught and are inherent in nature. The need and significance of training Although it is established in the previous section that certain skills, regardless of their significance can never be taught or learnt, it does not reduce the relevance of training – both formal as well as informal in an organizational setting. The current corporate landscape is indicative of an ever increasing competition which has a significant impact on the organizational growth and profits. This induces the management to introduce novel methods of training designed to improve and enhance the skill levels of their employees. In recent times, however, the demand for generic skills such as communication, problem-solving, leadership, time management, etc has gone up considerably forcing the management to invest in training activities which help their employees to successfully achieve such skills. Human assets are highly valued in this highly knowledge driven global economy and hence the management makes continuous efforts in training and development of its workforce (Fien et al (2008). Generic skills are in great demand along with technical and managerial skills. Overall, both formal as well as informal training is assuming greater significance in the development of workforce (Johnston et al. 2002). Such growing importance of workforce development and training in the corporate world is indicative of a trend whereby managerial as well as non managerial skills are taught to the employees through formal as well as informal techniques. Formal and Informal Learning Training in organizations can broadly be classified into two distinct categories – formal and informal. Formal training comprises of a predefined set of values and goals which are in line with the overall goals and objectives of the organization, while informal training has no specific structure and relies heavily on interaction between groups and communities in an organization. Formal learning usually takes place in a controlled environment with a teacher – student interaction in a predefined manner and involves the use of well planned tools and activities in a structured setting. Such training helps the employees in acquiring important knowledge about critical tasks to be performed in a regulated work environment and enhances their overall managerial skills. Formal training comprises of a planned effort to familiarize the employees to the job related activities and behavior which will enhance their overall performance (Lewis et al., 2006). In case of Dragon Air, the employees are given formal training in accordance with the regulations laid down by the Hong Kong aviation authorities. In accordance with the criteria, a formal training curriculum is designed which comprises of all the requisite knowledge which needs to be taught to the new recruits and the same is imparted to the trainees in a step-by-step manner through a formal training and assessment activity, mostly through a classroom lecture. The trainees / cabin crew are considered qualified only after successfully performing the specified tasks and adhering to all the norms and requirements of CAD. However, such formal well structured training may not always guarantee success and prepare individuals for real life and often unforeseen situations. Training whether formal or informal does not and cannot negate the chances of human error, which can only be avoided through practice, experience, tacit knowledge and other soft skills which are inherent in the individuals rather than learned from a classroom setting. According to Murphy and Calway (2008): “The knowledge which professionals need to solve real world problem requires that the professional is capable of constructing meaning in a given situation using both domain knowledge and experience” (Brown & Duguid, 1991) Thus both formal learning alone does not suffice, in terms of workforce development, and hence it must be accompanied by informal learning as well. In fact, the continuum of formal and informal learning together ensures a highly skilled workforce along with the presence of inherent skills, attitudes and tacit knowledge. Informal learning on the other hand, refers to the form of learning which affords relatively greater flexibility for the learners as compared to the formal learning. According to Coombs (1995) informal learning can be defined as: “the spontaneous, unstructured learning that goes on daily in the home and neighborhood, behind the school and on the play field, in the workplace, marketplace, library and museum, and through the various mass media, informal learning is by far the most prevalent form of adult learning”. (p. 92) In terms of workplace learning, informal learning can be described as learning that takes place in an uncontrolled informal environment, while on the job. It includes information acquired / exchanged while communicating with colleagues, clients, suppliers, or senior employees. In the process informal exchange of ideas and experiences take place thus enhancing the knowledge of the individuals concerned. As opposed to formal learning, informal learning is comparatively impulsive and often accidental and may take place through mere observation of day to day activities. According to Merriam et al., (2007): “The very nature of informal learning is what makes it so difficult for adults to recognize. Embedded as it is in our everyday activities, whether we are at work, at home, or in the community, and lacking institutional sponsorship, adults rarely label these activities as learning (Pp. 35) Informal learning usually takes place while on the job, by observing day to day activities and exchange of ideas and experiences with co-workers. Such valuable exchange of information invariably takes place all the time, but the potential of such unintentional learning is hardly recognized and its significance is more often than not, ignored by the management. In order to gain maximum benefit from such informal systems of learning, the management must take adequate steps in acknowledging its significance and then converting the informal workplace learning into systemized tools aimed at enhancing the knowledge and skills of the employees. Informal learning, unlike formal learning cannot be planned and / or organized but it can definitely be channelized properly to gain maximum mileage and encouraged, promoted and supported by the management to help their employees gain knowledge while on the job, with minimum of management intervention. The knowledge gained through informal means can be channelized by asking the employees to present written reports, or oral accounts of their experiences, arranging visits or tours, job rotation etc. This can further be combined with formal teaching methods such as mentoring, or coaching. The knowledge gained by employees through informal means can also be channelized through organized meetings where ideas and experiences can be discussed in an informal manner. According to Merriam et al (2007) studies and researches conducted in the past reveal that self directed / informal learning takes place frequently across organizations and that almost 90 per cent of the employees are engaged in exchange of information through informal channels. Furthermore studies reveal that more than 70 percent of learning which takes place in organizations is through informal means rather than in a formal setting (Kim et al., 2004) despite the fact that billions of dollars are spent each year by corporate across the globe, on formal training of employees (Pp. 35 – 36). According to Beamish (2007) although informal learning takes place in organizations more often and accounts for a significant proportion of knowledge gained by the workforce, it is hardly recognized since it is considered as an intangible form of learning by the management and hence is not given due significance. Organizations invariably give more significance to formal or structured learning curriculums and in the process tend to overlook the advantages offered by informal learning methods, which takes place while employees are performing their day to day tasks. Similar trend is observed in case of Dragon Air where both formal as well as informal learning methods are encouraged and implemented however, the informal methods are hardly given due significance and are largely ignored. The in-flight mentoring program which is one of the most unique and inexpensive forms of informal learning, is not being executed in a proper manner and more attention is given to formal learning and assessments which requires a huge budget and can prove to be extremely expensive if the outcome is below par. Making mentoring practice as part of the training policy does not cost much but is able to ensure consistent learning opportunity and sustain minimum outcomes for new cabin crew’s on-the-job training. For a cabin crew, purpose of workplace learning is not only to meet the CAD’s requirements and management’s expectation, but also to enhance personal capacity as well as for life enrichment. Knowledge & skills that need to be learnt at workplace for cabin crew are more than only the explicit work requirements, but also the tacit knowledge such as how to be physically and mentally flexible, handling of customer’s disruptive behavior at work, as well as the cultural diversity, etc. These types of soft skills are secondary to the requisite curriculum of airline training and therefore may not be available for cabin crew in the induction training. According to the Serban and Luan (2002), tacit knowledge such as informal business processes and communication, personal experiences and historical understanding are personal, and context-specific, and hence are difficult to formalize, capture, communicate or share. Thus it is believed that tacit knowledge such as the above tend to be difficult to teach in a formal manner in an organized classroom setting. Informal learning experiences although significant in relevance are hardly noticed and rarely given due credit, which is largely attributed to the fact that it takes place within the confines of office walls in most unexpected situations, such as informal chats with colleagues and co-workers or simply through observation. It is not only difficult but impossible to quantify in terms of its contribution to the employees learning / skills. However owing to ever widening research on the topic, organizations today, are beginning to realize the importance of informal learning along with the formal training methods, and hence are encouraging the trend by allowing their employees to engage in intelligent and effective exchange of information among themselves through various technological tools and networks. Employees are also encouraged to keep in touch with their fellow workers who assist each other in performing relevant tasks in the most effective manner possible, thus eliminating the need to invest in formal training by a considerable extent. Organizations are reaping the benefits of informal channels of learning by simply allowing their employees to freely interact with each other and by giving them quality time to spend with their fellow workers (Hargreaves, 1992). In Dragon Air for instance, the the training of soft skills such as emotional intelligence, corporate culture and etiquettes, service attitudes etc, for the cabin crew, is conducted in an informal manner, whereby a trainer elaborates general theories in area the of customer service, share information and experiences about good disciplines of the industry, demonstrate and modeling attitudes and speeches that are suggested and considered appropriate for customers interaction; role playing by the learners, in certain specific customer situations by following the steps suggested by the training curriculum, etc. Nevertheless, this informal learning method is carried out under a formally structured curriculum, as attitude towards customers and coworkers is one of the assessment criteria in cabin crew qualification’s checkout. The trainees are not expected to learn hundred percent of what the soft skill training has suggested, but most of the trainees normally are able to follow the steps being taught, practice by copying or imitating the pre-defined behaviors, attitudes and speeches demonstrated by the trainers, and finally act out in a role-playing activity. Airline cabin crew as a frontline service provider, one has to frequently interact with customers, coworkers and many others from different parts of the world. Be psychologically and physically flexible in order to adapt and respond to the changeable human behaviors, geographical climate, customs and cultures, etc, is one important skill for the survival in air industry. But it is believed that this kind of survival skill is a type of tacit knowledge which cannot be taught in the classroom. In conclusion, most of the workforce learning is dedicated to enhance the overall performance and skills of its employees. Such a goal can be achieved through either formal or informal training or a combination of both. Training is an inevitable part of workforce development and is indispensible. Hence, although it is true, that certain soft skills, or inherent personality traits, such as confidence, alertness, attitudes, intuition, or presence of mind, can never be taught regardless of their significance to the jobs, training and development of employees cannot be completely done away with and must be utilized judiciously and appropriately in sync with the organizational performance goals. References Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1999). Organisational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Badawy, M. K., (1995). Developing Managerial Skills in Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley and Sons Publication. Pp. 172 - 174 Beamish, A. (2007). Learning from work: Designing organizations for learning and communication. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. Busch, P., (2008). Tacit Knowledge in Organizational Learning, Idea Group Inc Publication, Pp. 3 - 5 Coombs, P. (1995). The world educational crisis: The view from the eighties. New York: Oxford University Press. Dawes, G., Cunningham, I., Bennett, B., (2000). Self Managed Learning in Action: Putting SML into Practice, Gower Publishing Fien, J., Maclean, R., (2008). Work, Learning and Sustainable Development: Opportunities and Challenges, Springer Publication, Pp. 223 - 227 Hargreaves, A. (2002). Time and teachers' work: An analysis of the intensification thesis. Teachers College Record, 94(1), Pp. 87-108. Kim, Collins, Hagedorn, Williamson, Chapman (2004). Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lewis, P. S., Goodman, S. H., Fandt, P. M. Michlitsch, J. F., (2006). 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