Defining and Characterising a Learning Organisation - Essay Example

Defining and Characterising a Learning Organisation Introduction A learning organisation is an entity that is capable of transforming its behavioursand frames of mind as an outcome of experience (Iandoli & Zollo 2007). This may seem like an apparent argument, yet several organisations decline to recognise definite facts or truths and replicate dysfunctional activities repeatedly (Evans, Hodkinson, & Unwin 2002). Cases consist of the number of times reforming programmes are replicated because the earlier initiative did not attain the needed results or the incompetence of mergers and acquisitions to achieve desired outcomes (Morgan 1996). Even though there is reasonably common understanding of the necessity for learning organisations, there are fewer consensuses on precisely what a learning organisation implies (Schwandt & Marquardt 1999). Garvin (1993) emphasises that several treatises of learning organisations have been deferential and ideal and loaded with almost magical expressions. Garvin (1993) provides a practical, if still rather unclear, definition of the learning organisation as “... an organisation skilled in creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights” (p.17). More idea into the definition of the learning organisation can be obtained by considering the kind of learning normally related with the notion of the learning organisation (Coghlan, Dromgoole, Joynt, & Sorensen 2004): ‘individual, organisational, adaptive, and generative’ (Sessa & London 2006: 28). The learning organisation, at its most fundamental level, is basically an organisation that cultivates processes of individual learning and fosters new potentials by either individuals or teams (Gilley & Maycunich 2000b). The more intriguing notion is organisational learning. Most people think that people can learn in an organisation but there are those who question whether an organisation itself can learn (Lassey 1998). Organisation learning, as stated by Lawson and Ventriss (1992 as cited in Fry & Griswold 2003: 311), is grounded on individual learning which is afterwards conveyed to other organisational members by understanding the individual learning in organisational strategies, cultural standards, organisational accounts and practices, and standard operating procedures (Fry & Griswold 2003). Characteristics of a Learning Organisation Throughout the learning process, people will affect each other and their insights will ‘co-transform’; specifically, each insight will adjust and change in the perspective of other insights, and once modified, it will, consequently, have an effect on what takes place next (Salisbury 2008). The notion of co-transformation is a commanding one and related not merely to internal organisational learning but also to policies with regard to an evolving environment, and also to sustainability perception (Vince 2004). Whatever decisions or steps are in place at any one time concerning organisational or environmental sustainability they cannot stay stagnant. As the wider environment evolves these decisions and actions, strategies, etc., have to adapt to respond to adjustments in the environment (Gupta & Sharma 2003). When modified, they will, consequently, affect that wider environment. When the effect and adjustment are mutual and not one-sided then co-transformation has taken place (Day 1999). Complexity theory views systems as interrelated wholes, affecting each other, in a process of co-evolution (Argote 1999). Learning organisations promote self-organisation, in order that groups can unite to discover new insights without being guided to do so by a superior external to the group (Chawla & Renesch 2006). This is the course of action that takes place normally around the water cooler or espresso machine, but learning organisations enthusiastically motivate self-organisation and do not perceive it as worthless (Chawla & Renesch 2006). This is a crucial component of the modern practice which is also an essential component of constructing an environment that cultivates ‘co-evolutionary sustainability’ (Gould & Baldwin 2004: 92). Organisations comprise diverse and complex ‘networks of relationships’, which are maintained through the process of communication and other types of feedback, with differing levels of inter-dependence (Kahane 2004: 38). Even though greatly affected by their culture and history, they can go beyond both when needed (Kahane 2004). When these organisations face a limitation they are capable of discovering the ‘space of possibilities’ and locate a different manner of performing tasks, i.e. they are ingenious and ground-breaking and can produce something original (Fry & Griswold 2003: 311). This ‘creation of new order’ is the unique characteristic of multifaceted systems. Unluckily, this natural source of novelty is usually limited (Fry & Griswold 2003: 311). Grasping the characteristics of multifaceted systems and of intricate learning organisations implies that people can use those characteristics to fulfil goals, rather than in opposition to them (Sessa 2006). Theories of Learning Organisation Cullen (1999) traces the present status of the learning organisation from Peter Senge’s (1994) five disciplines embodying learning organisations: ‘personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning, and systems thinking’ (Gilley & Maycunich 2000: 108). One practical description of learning organisation is “an organisational culture in which individual development is a priority, outmoded and erroneous ways of thinking are actively identified and corrected, and the purpose and vision of the organisation are clearly understood and supported by all its members. Within this framework, the application of systems thinking enables people to see how the organisation really works; to form a plan; and to work together openly, in teams, to achieve that plan” (Ward & Weingand 1998: 22). That embodiment of the learning organisation has potent perceptive appeal and potential (Ward & Weingard 1998). Nevertheless, the learning organisation has been very challenging to describe. Otala (1995) hit upon five unique forms of definition, organic, adaptive, educational, mechanistic, and philosophical and typifies them all as indescribable. As stated by Senge (1994), “no one understands what a learning organisation is, least of all me... anyone’s description of a learning organisation is, at best, a limited approximation” (St. Clair & Albert 2002: 134). Definitely, Smith and Tosey (1999) refer to the learning organisation idea more in the form of rhetoric than in an actual one, more a notion to focus aim than some unbiased situation. Such a rhetorical emphasis on creditable results without information or knowledge on the procedure and inputs needed to achieve those results usually leaves organisations devoid of a complete grasp of the notion (Smith & Tosey 1999). Even at the theoretical level, there are a number of dissimilarities about the assertions on which the learning organisation is founded (Pribram & King 1996). Take into account, at the most basic point, two quite dissimilar ideas of organisational learning: learning by organisations and learning in organisations, both coming from the argument that all learning occurs within people’s heads (Morecroft & Sterman 1994). Learning organisation creates the mystery of how the learning of a person turns out to be organisational (Greve 2003); on the other hand, learning by organisation creates the distinct mystery of how learning can occur externally of people’s heads (Jarvis, Holford, & Griffin 2003). Harris introduces issues about the capability of organisational learning to essentially change individuals and the locations where they work. Similarly, “social units can learn from experience, but they do not always do so even when individuals learn on behalf of the system” (Shively 2000: 398). Another stipulation in the notion of the learning organisation takes into account whether or not it can be assessed (Goh 1998). Measuring advancement and assessing learning activity all rely on evaluating learning itself and the evaluation of learning is challenging (Gilley & Maycunich 2000a). Learning is not an activity, it is a construct, thus not innately evident; but what noticeable, assessable behaviours or attributes can function as substitutes for learning? (Axelrod & Block 2003). Assessing formal learning endeavours is rather different from assessing the adjustment in performance that is the objective of learning and the fundamental nature of the learning organisation (Davenport, Jarvenpaa, & Beers 1996). By now it is normal to see that people are living in a period of brisk change. Only the descriptions differ (Garvin 2000). From an environment formerly typified as simply disorderly, people have progressed to more adjectives such as ‘disorganised’, even ‘foolish’ (Garvin 2000). The tempo of change, largely, has been motivated by drastic developments in information and communications (Hesselbein, Goldsmith, & Beckhard 1997). While information channels, processing memory capacity and speeds swell, it is claimed that the only restrictions of the information age will be the duration of a lifetime (Kim 1997). Even though in agreement on purpose, management changes have had few successes in improving organisational performance. Several explanations have been mentioned for this phenomenon but major among them have been challenges related with knowledge management and organisational culture (McMaster 1996). Concerning the latter, it is claimed that management change programmes have merely tried to implant new methods on an outdated organisational culture instead of adjusting the culture to make it well-suited with the recommended method (St. Clair & Albert 2002). Senge (1994) asserts that we should transform the manner individuals think and intermingle to modify the way the organisation operates. One foremost challenge has been a failure to interpret information and communications (Sullivan 1997). Authors such as Peter Drucker have already predicted the arrival of the Information Age and argued the need of restructuring organisations to meet the requirements of that novel age (Klein 1998). Drucker argues, “The essence of management is not techniques and procedures. The essence of management is to make knowledge productive” (Klein 1998: 25). In spite of progress in technology, organisations have merely started to address this challenge (Vince 2004). The key to both challenges, Senge (1994) asserts, is the ‘learning organisation,’ intended to generate resilient, adaptive and responsive systems depending on continuous response, feedback and experimentation to deal with greater volumes of information and the enlarging tempo of change (p. 40). Organisational culture is to be modified from a focus on stability and inevitability to a focus on experimentation and modernisation (Probst & Butchel 1997).The learning organisation is to question the fundamental theories about the way things work and is to be involved in an uninterrupted pursuit for a better way of performing tasks (Probst & Butchel 1997). In information gathering, rather than using generalised ‘definitions of the situation’, the learning organisation is to manage directly the turmoil and difficulty of a chaotic environment (Lassey 1998). In information processing and responding, the learning organisation is to depend on resiliency and adjustment instead on pre-programmed feedback (Iandoli & Zollo 2007). As stated by Malhotra (1977), the knowledge management and the learning organisation on which it depends “embodies organisational processes that seek a synergistic combination of data and information processing technologies and the creative and innovative capacity of human beings” (as cited in Khosrow-Pour 2000: 1083). With these changes, Senge (1994) claims, the learning organisation will offer a more appropriate environment and a more stable groundwork for the successful enforcement of management reforms. Conclusion Theories of learning organisation appear to have been evolving almost as rapidly as the environment. It is approximated that the life duration of management insight has decreased from a span of a decade to little more than a few years. A number of the new suggestions for management change have been motivated by the progress in information and communications technology. Innovative technology has facilitated the implementation of reforms, specifically in decision-making and decentralisation which were up till now challenging, at best. The suggestions arise under various labels-redefining, restructuring, quality management, and emancipation management. They are influenced by a number of insights in the past, such as decentralisation and participation with a twentieth century hint, such as empowerment, customer service, and quality. Essential to the obvious variety of these recommendations is a common agreement that resilient, responsive, and adaptive organisations are required to deal with the disorder and intricacy of the organisational environment. References Argote, L. (1999) Organisational Learning: Creating, Retaining & Transferring Knowledge, Massachusetts: Springer. Argyris, C. (1999) On Organisational Learning, London: Wiley-Blackwell. Axelrod, R.H. & Block, P. (2003) Terms of Engagement: Changing the Way We Change Organisations, San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Barker, R.T. & Camarata, M.R. (1998) The Role of Communication in Creating and Maintaining a Learning Organisation, The Journal of Business Communication . Chawla, S. & Renesch, J. (2006) Learning Organisations: Developing Culture for Tomorrows Workplace. Productivity Press. Coghlan, D., Dromgoole, T., Joynt, P., & Sorensen, P. (2004). Managers Learning in Action, New York: Routledge. Cullen, J. (1999) Socially Constructed Learning: A Commentary on the Concept of the Learning Organisation, The Learning Organisation , 45-52. Davenport, T.H. & Prusak, L. (1997) Working knowledge: how organisations manage what they know, Cambridge, England: Harvard Business School Press. Davenport, T.H., Jarvenpaa, S.L., & Beers, M.C. (1996) Improving Knowledge Work Processes, Sloan Management Review , 53-65. Day, A. (1999) 500 Tips for Developing a Learning Organisation, London: Kogan Page. Der Heijden, K.V., Bradfield, R., Burt, G., Cairns, G. & Wright, G. (2002) Sixth Sense: Accelerating Organisational Learning with Scenarios, New York: Wiley. DiBella, A.J. & Nevis, E.C. (1998) How Organisations Learn: An Integrated Strategy for Building Learning Capability, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Easterby-Smith, M., Araujo, D.L., & Burgoyne, J.G. (1999) Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation: Developments in Theory and Practice, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Evans, K., Hodkinson, P. & Unwin, L. (2002) Working to Learn: Transforming Learning in the Workplace, London: Kogan Page. Fry, B.R. & Griswold, J.S. (2003) Defining and Implementing the Learning Organisation: Some Strategic Limitations, Public Administration Quarterly , 311+. Garvin, D. (2000) Learning in Action: A Guide to Putting the Learning Organisation to Work, New York: Harvard Business Press. Garvin, D. (1993) What makes for an authentic learning organisation? Management Update: Newsletter from Harvard Business School , 7-9. Gilley, J.W. & Maycunich, A. (2000a) Beyond the Learning Organisation: Creating a Culture of Continuous Growth and Development through State-of-the-Art Human Resource Practices, Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books. Gilley, J.W. & Maycunich, A. (2000b) Organisational Learning, Performance, and Change: An Introduction to Strategic Human Resource Development, New York: Basic Books. Goh, S. C. (1998) Toward a Learning Organisation: The Strategic Building Blocks, SAM Advanced Management Journal , 15+. Gould, N. & Baldwin, M. (2004) Social Work, Critical Reflection, and the Learning Organisation, Cambridge, England: Ashgate Publishing. Greve, H. R. (2003) Organisational Learning from Performance Feedback: A Behavioural Perspective on Innovation and Change, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Gupta, J.N. & Sharma, S.K. (2003) Creating Knowledge Based Organisations, London: IGI Global . Hesselbein, F., Goldsmith, M. & Beckhard, R. (1997) The organisation of the future, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Iandoli, L. & Zollo, G. (2007) Organisational Cognition and Learning: Building Systems for the Learning Organisation, London: Information Science Publishing. Jarvis, P., Holford, J. & Griffin, C. (2003) The Theory & Practice of Learning, London: Kogan Page. Kahane, A. (2004) Solving Tough Problems: An Open Way of Talking, Listening, and Creating New Realities, San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Khosrow-Pour, M. (2000) Challenges of Information Technology Management in the 21st Century, Idea Group Publishing. Kim, D. (1997) Toward Learning Organisations: Integrating Total Quality Control and System Thinking, Cambridge, MA: Pegasus Communications. Klein, D. A. (1998) The Strategic Management of Intellectual Capital, Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Lassey, P. (1998) Developing a Learning Organisation, London: Kogan Page. Mattimore, B. (1994) 99% inspiration: tips, tales & techniques for liberating your business creativity, New York: American Management Association. McMaster, M. (1996) The intelligence advantage: organising for complexity, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Morecroft, J.D.W. & Sterman, J.D. (1994) Modeling for learning organisations, Portland, OR: Productivity Press. Morgan, G. (1996) Images of Organisation, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Otala, M. (1995) The Learning Organisation: Theory into Practice, Industry and Higher Education , 157-164. Pribram, K.H. & King, J. (1996) Learning as Self-Organisation, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Probst, G.J. & Buchel, B. (1997) Organisational Learning: The Competitive Advantage of the Future, Prentice Hall. Salisbury, M. (2008) iLearning: How to Create an Innovative Learning Organisation, San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Savage, C. (1997) Fifth generation management: co-creating through virtual enterprising, dynamic teaming, and knowledge, Bedford, MA: Digital Press. Schwandt, D. & Marquardt, M.J. (1999) Organisational Learning, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. Senge, P. (1994) The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organisation, New York: Doubleday Business. Senge, P.M., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Roth, G., Ross, R. & Smith, B. (1999) The Dance of Change: The Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organisations, New York: Broadway Business. Sessa, M. L. (2006) Continuous Learning in Organisations: Individual, Group, and Organisational Perspectives, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Shively, W. P. (2000) Power & Choice: An Introduction to Political Science, New York: McGraw-Hill. Smith, P.A. & Tosey, P. (1999) Assessing the Learning Organisation: Part 1- Theoretical Foundations, The Learning Organisation , 70-75. St. Clair, G. & Albert, L. (2002) Beyond Degrees: Professional Learning for Knowledge Services, K.G. Saur. Sullivan, B. (1997) In Action: Creating the Learning Organisation, Personnel Psychology , 492+. Vince, R. (2004) Rethinking Strategic Learning, New York: Routledge. Wand, P.L. & Weingand, D.E. (1998) Human Development: Competences for the Twenty-First Century, Bowker-Saur. Read More