Diversity Management with Regard to Women in the Workplace - Research Paper Example

Diversity in the workforce; strategic human resource management; women 1. Diversity management with regard to women in the workplace A. Introduction: 1. Relation of women in workplace and strategic human resource management: There has been a time when men were the food gatherers and hunters while women’s role was exclusively relegated to looking after children and the household activities. Over the years the status of women has changed drastically and they are now actively engaged in working along with men. They are now more and more entering into employment areas that were once considered to be male bastions like the armed forces or top management posts. Along with their male counterparts, women employees are important assets or resources in any organization. As with any resources, employees too have to be managed efficiently for attaining organizational goals, aims, and targets. The rise of active human resource management as a discipline is relatively young and the concept of linking strategy with human resources came in much later. The presence of women, who belong to with different castes and races, has resulted in diversity in the workplace. Hence, the concept of diversity management has now become an active discipline in the field of (strategic) human resources management. This paper discusses the concept of strategic HRM and diversity, with focus on managing women in the workplace. In the process, examples will be provided with regard to the applications and implications of diversity management in public and non-profit organizations. Diversity in the workplace is critical for the success of organizations, and women employees play an important role here. This will be discussed in detail later in this paper. Even though women now have a nearly equal representation in number when compared to men (figures provided later in the paper), many inequalities and injustices are meted out to the former today. The two main issues that come up are harassment and the proverbial glass ceiling. The laws and statutes in order to prevent harassment of women and minorities have not been able make its presence felt in any large measure. Sexual harassment faced by women is still an area of concern. The male dominated society comes up with various reasons as to why women cannot hold top positions in management. But the reality is that patriarchy (male dominance) is very much present in the workplace even today. The fact remains that workplace attitude and not familial or social constraints that encourage women to leave employment in many instances. Moreover women are often portrayed as subject of ridicule in religion and the English language also. All these seem to have taken deep roots in the society resulting in its attitude towards women and also how women are treated in the workplace. Unless this basic attitude changes for the better, women may still find themselves facing harassment and injustice in future also. 2. Probable improvements: Even though nearly half of the total workforce in the United States are consisted of women, they still face many work related problems like difference in pay scale, sexual harassment, lack of representation, and the much touted glass ceiling. As Bacchi puts it, “with the exception of education, sexual harassment is seen unilaterally as an employment problem, a problem faced by working women” (Bacchi 184). Bell et al quoting external sources say that “women in the U.S. earn only about 76 cents to the dollar that men earn (Wall Street Journal, 1998), are more concentrated in lower earning industries and organizations than are men” (Bell et al ). Diversity management should see to it that such instances do not occur in the workplace. This will be dealt with in more detail in later sections of the paper. But studies have shown that all the above factors do exist. In some respects, women workers can by themselves bring an improvement in the state of affairs by asserting their rights and through negotiation. One instance is difference in pay scales among men and women. Negotiating for a pay increase or promotion is common practice in the workplace. But it has been found that men are better negotiators when it comes to negotiating for their own sake while women perform better when negotiating on behalf of a colleague (Pradel et al). It has also been found that they are reluctant to speak up for their own sake even if the volume and quality of work they do equals or even exceeds that of male colleagues (Noddings 225). This reluctance can exist in other problem areas (harassment) also. So what women workers can do to better diversity management practices is to start speaking for their and other female colleague’s sake. This will also embolden more and more women to follow suit. Of course, it will help if better regulations regarding diversity management is in place or at least see to it (by management and regulatory authorities) such practices are effectively implemented in organizations. Some statutes like the Equal Pay Act is not very effective according to Barbara Kate Repa because it only covers situations where work done be both sexes is the similar. Repa states that “since women have been historically banned from many types of work and have had only limited entree to managerial positions, the Equal Pay Act in reality helps very few women” (Repa 287). The solution is a probable change in some of the statutes in such Acts. Equal level of education, qualification, experience among men and women, and the presence in diverse types of employment can help to reduce the gender gap, as per the findings of a report by the United States Government Accountability Office (United States Government Accountability Office 2). One positive change is that the gap between earnings between male and female employees are coming down over the years in a study (US Census Bureau) covering the years 1959 to 2003 (DeNavas-Walt et al 6). This could be because of the above mentioned factors stated in the GOA. B. History of women in the workplace: The concept of women working for a salary appears to be born out of necessity rather than choice. Industrialization, in USA and more so in the UK resulted in large scale migrations to cities from rural areas. According to Seccombe, “the current period is one in which women have been forced to go out to work” (Fine 119). According to The US Department of Labor (Women’s Bureau) 68million women are employed in the workforce in various positions and accounted for 46.5% of total employment figures. Of the total women employed, management and related posts held came to 39%, followed by sales and administrative duties (33%). Nearly 21% of women were employed in the service sector while only 6% was employed in production and transportation. The Department figures also show that the most common jobs held by women were as secretaries, nurses, school teachers, cashiers, receptionists, and as bookkeepers and accountants (Quick Stats on Women Workers, 2008). This is an indication that women still favor or are relegated to traditional jobs even now. But the number of jobs held by women in the non-traditional sectors is increasing gradually. C. Roadblocks facing women 1. Logistical issues: childcare, conflicting social roles/family demands, etc.: The inherent characteristics of women according to their gender and social role have resulted in certain roadblocks to their career and its enhancement. Socially, woman’s primary role is conceived as giving birth to children; she has the primary responsibility of looking after the family and other household responsibilities (Oakley 54). This prevents women from spending too much time in office, unlike men. But even so, there is a misconception that women prefer raising families to taking up a career according to a study done by Joan Williams, director of the Center for WorkLife Law at the University of California. The atmosphere in the workplace and the attitude of colleagues and superiors are the primary reasons why women leave their careers. For Williams, “women are more likely “pushed out” by workplace conditions than “pulled out” by their families” (Murrill). Other factors that may prevent women from becoming an active participant in career advancement include shorter careers, male ability to interact more with the various components in the organization as well as the society, longer working hours available to men, the multiplicity of roles played by women (McBrier). The book Advancing Women’s Careers state there is something called in-group bias which can result in gender discrimination (Burke & Vinnicombe 192). This type of bias happens when members of a particular group extend preferential treatment to members of that particular group (Example, men as a group). In such situations, the members incorrectly value their qualities as higher than those of the out-group or outsiders (women). The concept of patriarchy in society is another factor why women are discriminated in the workplace. Even though the basic meaning of patriarchy is about men being the head of a family unit, the word has more relevant connotations in this context. Patriarchy, in fact, refers to a “society dominated by men in all ways: (i.e... religion, history, governments, business, interpersonal relationships, self-image and the list goes on) (Patriarchy-Glossary of Terms ). The illogical injustice against women stems from other sources like religion and language also. In Western religion, even the concept of God is based on masculinity. God is said to have told Adam that he had been created in the same image of the creator himself. As Gardiner puts it: “[t]he god-head of this system was to be a male. This male god was endowed with all the creative abilities of man” (Gardiner). The religious contention that man was created in God’s image may be one of the basic underlying factors that made man incorrectly believe that he is superior to women and hence has the right to control her. According Warren, in a patriarchal society, even language can be termed as a ‘sexist-naturist’ one. This means that the terms used in everyday speech depicts women, animals, and inanimate objects as being of a lower order than men (Warren 27). 2. Sexual harassment, and glass ceiling: As per the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “In Fiscal Year 2008, EEOC received 13,867 charges of sexual harassment. 15.9% of those charges were filed by males. EEOC resolved 11,731 sexual harassment charges in FY 2008 and recovered $47.4 million in monetary benefits for charging parties and other aggrieved individuals (not including monetary benefits obtained through litigation)” (The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). A peculiar feature of sexual harassment is that it is seen more in higher levels of management hierarchy. Joan Kennedy Taylor, referring to a survey done by the ‘Working Women’, states that “the higher a woman is in the corporate hierarchy, the more likely she is to be harassed” (Taylor 123). The reason is that men feel threatened by presence of women as equals, where there are perceived to be challenging the traditional notions of male superiority and patriarchy. The concept of the glass ceiling in the workplace was envisioned by Rosabeth Moss Kanter, one of the first women economic theorists to be accorded that title of management guru. Her monumental work titled Men and Women of the Corporation was a study of a large corporation called Indsco. The book reflects the power play that goes in such organizations and the power and powerlessness seen among different groups within the company. She says that this powerlessness and discrimination (against women in this case) was not due to the way women behaved or due to their lack of capability. It depended on the power structure and other factors that were responsible for this state of affairs. There existed an invisible glass ceiling that prevented women from progressing up the corporate ladder. Kanter purports that “if there was to be any progress on issues such as the glass ceiling, it would come about because organisations changed, not people” (Guru: Rosabeth Moss Kanter). It appears that women are discriminated against in society, language, religion, and the workplace. It is no wonder that sexual harassment and male superiority complex is still an issue in the workplace. D. Implications for employers 1. Importance of workforce diversity: The International Project Management Association (IPMA) and the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) Benchmarking Committee states that “diversity efforts in the workplace facilitate the exchange of new perspectives, improve problem solving by inviting different ideas, and create a respectful, accepting work environment, all of which make good business sense” (Rice 31). There is a more practical viewpoint in employing women (and other vulnerable sections of society) which also makes sound business sense and it is the concept of empathetic marketing. Women constitute more than half of the population in the United States, and hence form a strong market for products and services. Good employees are capable of knowing “the special problems faced by their customers and will be able to come up with ideas for new products that best satisfy women, minorities, and the disabled” (Friedman & Amoo). Similarly, there are other instances where women are better equipped in terms of academics to handle the tasks and duties required for jobs in the 21st century. Thus, it can also be found that “women are not exploited enough: they are the world's most under-utilised resource; getting more of them into work is part of the solution to many economic woes, including shrinking populations and poverty” (Women in the workforce: The importance of sex). The larger number of single women in the society is a factor here. Only gainful employment can help them survive in a dignified manner. So providing employment to women has now become a necessity to preserve the social fabric of the United States. The part played by the media has also contributed to employees being wary of employing women according to Bilimoria and Piderit. They attempt to debunk several common myths regarding employer reluctance in providing top management jobs to women. The myths according to the authors are the following: * Highly educated women are not keen on advancement * Men are more hard-working or put in more hours of work than women * Women are unwilling or timid to ask for what is rightfully theirs * Power and position do not interest women * Women find it more satisfying to stay at home and raise a family rather than work and build a career (Bilimoria & Piderit 15). For each of the above ‘misconceptions’, the authors put forth their views based on their studies, observations, and references to literature on the area. Women, especially if they are highly qualified, leave their current positions in search of better opportunities or in order to find self-employment, and not for any other reason. The authors also claim that there is not much difference in turnover rates among male and female mangers in middle and top level positions. Even though family and social commitments exist, a larger percentage of women put in equal or more working hours when compared to their male counterparts. Women are also accused in the media with regard to their unwillingness to relocate. The authors claim that both men and women accept international assignments which required relocation. Women, especially those who do not have children to take care of do aspire for top management positions. This indicates that once their children are grown up and are able to fend for themselves, women do not have any problem in holding positions of power. But other factors like bias, harassment, or unsatisfactory working conditions may prompt women from furthering their careers. The authors argue that certain inherent emotional (female) attitudes may be a factor rather than timidity with regard to employment rights and equality in the workplace. More studies need to be done in this area before a definitive conclusion can be arrived at. With regard to power and position, the argument put forth is “that woman want power – keeping in mind that women’s power might be demonstrated differently from men’s” (Bilimoria & Piderit 25). Referent power is seen more among women leaders when compared to men. So, women may prefer such areas where referent power is more effective than other forms. With regard to the fifth myth that women find more satisfaction in raising a family rather than pursue a career, studies have shown that those who find a work-life balance show no preference for the former. In cases where the spouse or other family members contribute in looking after family and household responsibilities, women have no qualms in pursuing and advancing in their chosen careers. Employers who take note of the above factors can utilize the capabilities of women employees and make full use of their potential. It can be said that there is no question of superiority or inferiority of a particular gender. What matters is managing the diversity that exists between the perceptions, commitments, and attitudes of men and women. 2. Legislations affecting women in the workplace: Many legislations and acts have been implemented over the years in order to protect women (and other minorities) which have a direct bearing on diversity management. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 bars employers from compensation discrimination on the basis of sex. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 aims at protection against harassment of any sort (sexual, maternity leave, promotion etc) for women and other affected groups: “executive Order 11246 prohibits covered federal contractors and subcontractors from discriminating on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin, and requires affirmative action to ensure equal employment opportunity without regard to those factors” (Solis). A statute specifically targeted at providing equality in opportunity in employment is the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 specifically provide for maternity leave to pregnant employees. The Final Rule appended to the Act now allows women to take leave to take care of a spouse, child, or parent who has been injured while engaged in active military duty. E. Strategic human resources management: Mark and Cynthia Lengnick-Hall were the first to conceptualize and define strategic human resources management. For them “the relationship between human resource management and business strategy: matching managerial style with strategies; forecasting human resource requirements based upon certain strategic objectives; and describing the means by which human resource management can be integrated with the needs of business strategies” (Schuler & Jackson 1). In the context of this paper, the word business can be said to refer to the activities of the non-profit organization. This is mentioned specifically so that the term profit which is closely associated with corporations need not be considered, and business means the day to day activities of the organization for the attainment of its objectives. It would be worthwhile at this juncture to define business strategy so that a relationship with HRM (to form strategic human resource management) can be established. Swanson and Holton quotes Tichy et al in providing a definition for business strategy. It is “the process by the basic mission and objectives of the organization are set, and the process by which the organization uses its resources to achieve those objectives” (Swanson et al 342). This is an apt definition since the word profit is not used here. The definition specifically states that an organization has to use its resources in order to achieve its objectives. Humans (employees) are one of its most important resources and making HRM a part of its strategy therefore makes sound practical sense. 1. Diversity management: The book ‘The psychology and management of workplace diversity’ (quoting Ivancevich and Gilbert) defines diversity management as “the commitment on the part of the organization to recruit, retain, reward, and promote a heterogeneous mix of productive, motivated, and committed workers including people of color, whites, females, and the physically challenged” (Stockdale & Crosby 56). It is thus evident from the definition that woman adds to the diversity in the workplace. 2. Principles of diversity management: Patricia M. Arredondo in her book Successful diversity management initiatives clearly states that diversity management is closely linked with business strategy: “diversity management Is a Strategic Organizational Goal. Diversity management interacts with all other aspects of business, that is, leadership, management practices, product development, human resources, marketing and sales, financial projections, and community and global communications” (Arredondo 20). The following are the basic tenets, according to the author, to be followed in successful diversity management practices. Implementation of this concept requires a basic shift in the thinking pattern within organizations. For example, in-group bias is one area where management can undertake a major rethinking. This is primarily because no external influences are necessary in this instance and only a change in the perception of the leadership within the organization is needed. Women are to be treated as equals and be considered part of the group. For instance, a promotion should be passed on to another person only if the qualified women employee is unwilling to accept it. This is probably difficult to implement fully in a patriarchal culture where the male is seen as superior and the centre of authority. Women should take a stand in this situation and speak and act for their own sake in order to make a difference here. Mentorship is an important element in leadership. Probably, women prefer to talk to persons of their own gender regarding problems. Specialized training programs, for example, the ‘Women of Color’ project in a Colorado based telecommunications company, are found to be effective for career advancement of women (Hopkins et al 353). The above project dramatically improved promotion percentage of colored women in the organization. An article in the Journal of Applied Psychology (referring to studies by Kiran et al) states that women (and minorities) respond to formal rather than informal recruitment methods. So formal interviews, advertisements for employment opportunities etc will result in more women applicants and diversity (Newman & Lyon 300). The United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Managing Diversity in the Civil Service has provided a set of guidelines on practical diversity management. It should be innovative and provide qualitative and quantitative results, be capable of being replicated or copied, and be measurable (Reichenberg 1). A diversity management program should take into consideration all laws and statutes concerning employment and should see that they are followed. So, the statutes and laws that are aimed at protecting women’s rights should be considered in such a situation. Decentralized efforts are more effective rather than use the same procedures across all institutions and bodies. For example, an organization in a particular state (for instance, New York) may have among its workforce, women from various ethnic groups. This situation may not exist in a more rural setting, and diversity management in the former instance will be more complex. Training of employees with regard to understanding and accepting diversity is essential. Statistics about break-up of diversity should be taken so that any under-represented section (women) should be filled through recruitment. Finally, an element of accountability should be introduced so that all persons involved will take the management efforts seriously. 3. Examples of diversity management in public and non-profit organizations: The above mentioned UN publication also provides some instances of diversity management taken up by the governing body in a few US states. The State of Oklahoma has for example given powers to the Office of Personnel Management, to hold accountable any state agency if instances of discriminatory practices are seen. For example, if under-representation is seen as a result of in-group bias, the agency and its officers will be held responsible. The state agencies should also appoint a civil rights administrator to monitor the management. In March 2004, the US Air Force had signed an agreement with Women in Aviation International (WAI) for promotion career opportunities of women in the organization. The U.S. Air Force thus seeks to promote “WAI to active duty, reserves, and guard affiliates by notifying them of the membership opportunities in WAI to include scholarship, aviation conferences, and aviation education and career opportunities” (Women in Aviation International). F. Conclusion: 1. Major findings and application: Even though women represent an equal percentage in the total workforce when compared with men, many inequalities still remains to be addressed. Patriarchy, religion, language, and society in general have shown this attitude towards women and it reflects in their treatment in the workplace also. What is regrettable is that even though a lot of literature is available on problems faced by women in the workplace, very little information or data is available with regard to implementation of plans aimed at alleviating this situation. This indicates that diversity management with regard to gender is still not seen as a major issue by a male dominated society. The two major factors are harassment, and lack of advancement (glass ceiling) in their careers. It is easy to say that implementation of the suggestions and guidance put forth by various individuals and organizations can find a solution to this situation. But, unless the age-old attitudes towards women-whether they are social, religious or patriarchal-undergo a major change, the improvement in the condition of the female employee will not change. 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