Information System for Managment - Essay Example

Q1 Information systems for management typically use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative data which may be objective or ive. Explain whatis meant by each such data type, and provide, in a structured format, a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each type. Types of Data – Information Systems The basic classification of data in information systems is in terms of quantitative and qualitative. The use of qualitative and quantitative data is inevitable in an information system. The nature of the information system denotes that even small variations in data can result in major errors in the overall representation and analysis thereby affecting results. As a data in an information system cannot be manipulated once an input has been recorded, in case of any subjective errors the consequences can be very grave for the management. The Information systems manager should also know that quantitative data would lead to deductions while qualitative data is exploratory. Thus one is confirmatory while other is inductive. (The Qualitative Debate, Nd). Both have their advantages and disadvantages. There is thus a need to ensure that the manager is aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of data. This is being explained with the example of a Student Feedback Questionnaire of the University of Westminster placed as an Appendix. (Student Feedback Questionnaire, Nd). Qualitative Data Qualitative data focuses on "quality” a term referring to the essence or ambience of something. Qualitative data is used to understand complex social phenomena. (Veal, 2000). They are suitable to seek knowledge about the fundamental characteristics of a phenomenon under study. The data being acquired in the Questionnaire in Section 7 can be classified as purely qualitative in nature, while that in other sections is a mix of qualitative and quantitative data. Thus data derived from observations made of parts of the system is also regarded as qualitative. (Fielding, 1993). Subjective and Objective Evidence of Qualitative Data Historical Data. Total historical evidence of a particular period such as the overall impact of the curriculum in the University when considered, can be subjectively analyzed based on varied interpretations of the analysts. Ethnographic Data. Ethnographic data includes observations made by the students about various activities during the course. Since these observations are subject to varied interpretation based on the perception of the observer, there is a certain amount of subjectivity which creeps into the information system which is unavoidable. The variation may also arise based on the different time when the data has been collected. Quantitative Data Quantitative as implied by the name is gathering data in quantity. The goal of the quantitative data collection and analysis is to find out the truth by using statistical procedure. Quantitative data allows readers to understand facts easily by looking at charts and graphs. The use of statistics reduces contradictions, which may exist in research. Morgan (2000) has mentioned that “quantification” allows accuracy of statements by providing facts and figures with precision. Absence of one will make the other incomprehensible. It is assumed that quantitative methodologies are more logical and comprehensible than qualitative methodology for this reason. Thus it would be seen that in the Questionnaire there is a strong bias toward aggregating responses of the students in the form of quantitative data. Subjective and objective evidence of Quantitative data in the questionnaire is evident as the data is descriptive in nature. Thus while an information system should be able to capture descriptive data which is based on a summary of the raw information inputs available thereby rendering it very objective, it is generally seen that subjectivity may come in when the sample size is smaller. Thus the responses of the students being based on their initial reactions would prove to be subjective in nature. Discussion of Advantages and Disadvantages The aim of Student Feedback Questionnaire of the University of Westminster is to provide the University comments from students to improve the quality of education. This it would be apparent that there is a need for qualitative as well as quantitative data analysis. Since the students are being asked about their opinion on lectures, seminars and so on, it is evident that this would be subjective evaluation by individuals which is being consolidated in the form of a quantitative input. The qualitative element in the data would be ethnographic in nature to include observations, records and interpretations by the students. The advantages of qualitative data would be its authenticity as it would comprise of true impressions of students. (Veal, 2000). Quantifying these impressions through aggregation would imply that data is being consolidated by an objective method of averaging means. However this will not overcome initial subjectivity in the data points which have been captured through the impressions of students. This creates a dichotomy in the data collection as well as analysis. Thus unless done with great rigour the results may not reflect the actual inputs. For example a student asked to comment on quality of lectures would have had a good impression of some and a poor impression of others. The questionnaire requires him to summarize his impressions of all the lectures. This approach has considerable disadvantages and would not necessarily contribute to the overall aim of improving the quality of instructions by the University. This is so as lectures are regarded as a principal form of instruction in any educational curriculum at the university level. Assuming that students have indicated that the overall standard of lectures was poor, the University would not gain from this observation as it only suggests that lectures were poor and does not indicate which lectures were good and which were poor. Such identification would have enabled continuing with those lectures which were good and improving upon those that were marked as poor. Thus a qualitative approach when quantified needs to be examined in detail for the purpose for which the same is designed. Examining the data being collected in the Questionnaire, it would be seen that there is a common response which has been provided for answers. Sections such as organization of the module, the materials and equipment and assessment are easily quantifiable and have limited scope for bias. On the other hand issues concerning modes of instructions such as lectures, seminars and overall evaluation are qualitative in nature. By providing the same response to data which is qualitative and quantitative, subjectivity is likely to creep in the summary. The final section seeks responses which are wholly qualitative in nature. Thus students are being asked as to what they have found most interesting and what is least interesting along with suggestions for improvement. This avoids a mixed approach and will provide the student an opportunity to respond effectively by expressing his views on the subject. There is a need for careful analysis of the responses and then comparing it with those given in the overall evaluation to arrive at an unbiased assessment of the subject. An examination of the University Questionnaire has clearly indicated the advantages and disadvantages of Qualitative and Quantitative Data thus:- Qualitative Data – Advantages. Provide indication of general trends to authorities. Provide information of the fundamental benefits of a programme. Based on the inputs specific measures for improvement of the quality of the programme can be undertaken. Qualitative Data – Disadvantages. There is a major deficiency of indicating which instruction within a general category has proved beneficial and which needs improvement. There is an element of subjectivity as it is dependent on the perceived input of the student. This may lack rigor which is essential before the data is entered into an automated information system. Quantitative Data – Advantages. Collation of data which includes responses of all the students to an extent has removed subjectivity. The presentation of the data from the responses by students is easy and can be understood by the management. The entire data can be subjected to statistical processes including checks of accuracies, evolving standard deviations and means thereby eliminating subjectivity and errors to a large extent. The statistical analysis will also eliminate minor variations in inputs provided by students and thus would prove beneficial for overall analysis. Quantitative Data – Disadvantages. There is a reason to believe that it is not possible to eliminate subjectivity completely. Specific pointers for improvement in relevant programs may not be forthcoming. Reference: 1. Fielding, Nigel. (1993). Analyzing Qualitative Data. Social Research Update. Issue 1 March 1993. 2. Morgan.G, (2000). Research Methods in Applied Settings. Mahwah, NJ. Publication. 3. Potter.J. (1996) An Analysis of Thinking and Research about Qualitative Methods. Mahwah, NJ. Publication. 4. Student Feedback Questionnaire. Nd (No date). Westminster : University of Westminster. 5. The Qualitative Debate. Nd (No date). Retrieved on 22 December 2006 from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdeb.htm. 6. Veal. A. (2000). Business Research Methods: a managerial approach. University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. Q 2 - MIS – Assisting managers MIS and Functions of Managers A system is a holistic view of a large number of parts which make up any organization, while information provides the necessary data or details to link together these parts. (Bartholome, 2006). Generally speaking a manager’s function involves planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling an organization or a business enterprise. (Fayol, 1967). The aim of efficient management is to ensure that the objectives of the organization are achieved with least number of inputs. For effective management data and facts have to be accurate and need to be provided in a timely manner to managers. This is where the information system plays an important role. (Stair, 1996). A total information system has to deliver goals throughout the system rather than restricting to one or more of its parts. A manager is responsible for a large number of functions in an organisation. An MIS thus assists the manager throughout the organization to carry out their functions of planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling business. (Rochester, 1996). A system can be classified as MIS only after it has attained the characteristic of provision of total support to the manager. Performance of each of these tasks by the management is indicated by its link with the information as per succeeding paragraphs. The functions of planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling are carried out separately by different levels of managers as explained with examples below. MIS and the Planning Function By its very nature, planning is the fundamental function of management from which all other functions such as organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling emerge. (Higgins, 1994). Planning is thus not just identifying and giving out goals but also gives the general outline in which these goals are to be achieved. Thus planning is generally carried out by the highest level managers in a business. The higher level managers will require considerable amount of information for planning. The various activities in planning include identifying the vision, evolving the mission, goals and objectives of the organization. Information is required in all these stages. The first stage is vision where in the top managers are required to provide directional guidance and motivational inputs for the organization. While quite a lot of this will be qualitative in nature such as the environment, value systems, opportunities and directional possibilities. This will comprise of historical as well as ethnographic information which will be evaluated by the management. The evolution of mission again is dependent on a large amount of information which is available to the management. (David, 1999) This will to an extent be qualitative in nature. However a number of quantitative facets will also be factored in the same. The next step is laying down specific goals. (Higgins, 1994). Here a greater number of objectivity will come in as goals are required to be specific, these should be measurable and attainable within a given time frame. The penultimate step in planning is that of defining objectives which will essentially have to be based on a large number of qualitative and quantitative information to include conditions in the market, productivity, resources available, human resources objectives and performance and so on. The synthesis of such a large quantity of information will have to be done through an effective information management system. Taking the example from the retail industry, say a Wal-Mart store, the vision of the firm will be laid down by the higher management, but the store’s managerial head will have to evolve the mission for the store, lay down the goals and objectives based on the past performance, targets achieved and the overall retail environment in the area of operations. However MIS will not provide him all the inputs, he would have to make the final decision based on his own judgement reviewed and assessed independently. Thus MIS will only act as the base input and will not necessarily dictate the planning decisions made by the managerial head. MIS and the Organising Function Organizing is one of the critical processes in management. Organizing involves establishing processes, procedures and structures to enable achievement of the organization’s mission, goals and objectives. The flow of information will dictate the efficiency in the process of organizing. (Higgins, 1994) This function will have to be undertaken by the process or second tier managers in a firm or business. Some of the critical decisions which will be based on information inputs include division of labour, the authority at each level, and the organization of various departments, coordination and span of control of each department and so on. The level of reporting and the nature of these reports will be dictated by the information that is required to be generated to enable achievement of the mission and the goals. Taking forward the retail business envisaged in the planning function, in organising of the retail store, the process manager will decide on the manner in which each department such as procurement and purchase, stores, inventory control, sales and so on will function. The coordination and division of responsibility between each department will also be decided by the process manager. For this while MIS will provide an important input, there are other issues such as the ability, competence and attitude of the sub divisional managers which will dictate the manner in which work will be distributed within the store. Thus sole dependence on MIS needs to be avoided. MIS and the Controlling Function Controlling is establishment of standards and judging performance based on the same. This will once again be the function performed by the process or second tier manager. Controlling involves a four step progression. This would first include establishing standards, there after measuring achievement followed by an analytical process of comparing the standards laid down and achieved and finally taking corrective action in time to harmonize the variations. (Higgins, 1994). Here again information is considered important as it includes establishment of standards and assessing the actual performance which are critical inputs of information. The process manager in the Wal-Mart store would lay down the target for sales, inventory control and other facets of management which would dictate the level of performance of each subordinate department. These will be essentially quantitative parameters which will be enumerated to managers at the subordinate level and will be monitored through the MIS. However environmental factors such as local conditions, business cycle, season of the year cannot be fully factored in the MIS, which will essentially be judgemental and hence will have to be considered separately by each manager. MIS and the Directing Function A most critical function in management where information will play a major role is that of directing. Directing can also be called as leading. (Higgins, 1994). Information provides the performance achieved by each employee to a manager. Based on these inputs the manager can induce positive reinforcement for an employee whose performance is above average or suggest corrective measures for improvement of performance of employees who are working below par. Similarly there are other facets of directing which have a major role to play in information. However it needs to be emphasised that as in other functions, in directing too total dependence on the MIS cannot be recommended. A manager has to use his judgement along with the information provided by the MIS to direct functioning of the organisation. Thus the Wal-Mart store manager will have to ensure that his directions on achievement of targets or goals will also be dependent on the competence of the employees, their personal ambitions and goals which possibly cannot be factored in the MIS. MIS and Decision Making Decision making is the most critical function of management. This is undertaken by a manager at every level from the top to the lowest level of management. Thus in the example of Wal-Mart , the store head, the process manager, the inventory control manager, the sales manager, the personnel and the administration manager will have to take decisions at their individual levels. MIS will provide critical support to each of these managers to enable them to carry out their tasks efficiently. Thus it would provide the inventory control manager the level of stocks in the stores as well as on the shelf, enabling procurement, the sales manager the turn over of each item, thereby determining fast moving items, the personnel manager the individual efficiency of each staff based on results achieved and so on. At each level the MIS inputs will enable the managers to make critical decisions in procurement, stocking, demands and incentives to employees. While information is critical, it has be evaluated carefully by the manager at each level and cannot be based purely on that provided by the MIS. Since management is a human and dynamic function, a manager should be able to exercise his judgement in each case and use MIS as a tool for functioning rather than let it override other critical factors. This is most evident in the decision support system which is a critical part of the MIS. A manager cannot base his decisions purely on the MIS inputs and has to take into account the environmental factors which affect the MIS as much as the business as a whole. Reference: 1. Bartholome, Lloyd W. (2006). Management information system. Encyclopaedia of Business information. Retrieved on 22 December 2006. from http://www.answers.com/topic/management-information-system 2. David, Fred R. (1999). Strategic Management. Electronically reproduced by permission of Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 3. Fayol, Henri. (1967). General and Industrial Management. London : Pitman. 4. James Higgins. (1994). The Management Challenge, Second edition, Macmillan 5. Liker, Jeffrey K. (2004) The Toyota Way : 14 Management Principles from the World’s Greatest Manufacturer. London : McGraw Hill Education. 6. Rochester, Jack B. (1996). Using Computers in Information. Indianapolis, IN: Que Education and Training. 7. Stair, Ralph M. (1996). Principles of Information Systems and Managerial Approach, 2nd ed. Cincinnati, OH: Boyd & Fraser. Q3 - Training plan for the SBC system changeover? Lack of Customized User Friendly Training Program. Training programs in work organizations have to be devised keeping in view the needs of the users. (Tannenbaum, S I. Yuki, G, 1992) The training program for FLARE was evolved without fully catering for the requirements of the user. A Borough Council is a complex organization which has a number of different departments. Each department has a different function; hence data inputs and outputs required by them are likely to be at variance. (Flare Case Study, Nd). FLARE provided an ideal system for such an environment as it could fully meet the end users needs. However to align the user to the needs of the system, it was necessary that each department should be trained for its part separately. This would have enabled not only fitting the soft ware to the purpose for which it was being used, but also made it user friendly. FLARE was customized software catering for a variety of user requirements; however it was also essential that the user was made familiar with the software. A training program is designed for just such a purpose. It is evident that the program designed could not achieve this aim. Devising the training program after mapping the process would have been an advantage. This would have enabled evolving training inputs for each stage and ensuring that these fitted the needs. Thus FLARE could have easily fitted the purpose for which it was designed. A most important facet of a successful training program is the inputs that are obtained from the future users to include their level of competence, assimilation and needs. The FLARE training program did not envisage undertaking these inputs and thus it was virtually imposed on the employees of the Council thereby resulting in their resistance. However it would be seen that the SBC has been very inflexible in adapting to FLARE. It is not practical to ensure that each programme is based on the needs of the users. This would involve custom built software which is highly expensive. On the other hand it is essential that every organisation should adapt to the software through training and motivational inputs which was lacking in SBC. Inadequate Budgetary Allotment The budgetary allotment of £20,000 is seen to be grossly inadequate for the total task of inducting licensed software as FLARE including its training and other aspects. The significance of training the staff was accepted and thus was included as a budget head but only as a broad parameter. A detailed consideration would have revealed that it was grossly inadequate to achieve the given aims. A separate allocation for training in a large organization with diverse departments is essential. As each department will have to tailor the training based on its specific needs, considerable investment in training is required. This would have catered for greater time and resources allotted in shifting the system from SPACE to FLARE than allocated at present. Additional budget would have also enabled hiring additional training staff which would have facilitated better training inputs. Monetary incentives were essential to the staff for switching over from one system to another. This would have reduced the resistance and also motivated them to adapt to the new system. This should have been catered for in the budget. However given the limited allotments made, this is seen to be impracticable. Budget alone however need not dictate the efficiency of a system. There are other measures which can be taken to ensure that budgetary constraints are overcome. It is evident that the SBC adopted a purely budgetary approach to the issue thereby allowing this perception to delay adaptability to the new software. Training Program Based on Existing Standards of Staff The training program was evolved without assessing the exiting standards of the staff, their likely resistance and the ability to absorb the new system. Thus the time catered for training and adaptation of the staff to the new system was too less and was considered unrealistic. The staff being unable to adapt to the system quickly seems to have actively worked against the success of the program thereby ensuring that additional hurdles were created in its implementation. Thus disgruntled staff worked towards failure of the system. The training program also did not cater for the direct shift from SPACE to FLARE which was always a difficult proposition. Keeping in view the capacity of the staff to absorb, parallel functioning of both the systems could have been considered which would have enabled the staff to gradually adjust to the new system. While basing training program on existing standards of the staff is important, there are enough indications that FLARE was adequately compatible however measures to overcome attitudinal resistance in staff were lacking. This would have easily overcome the supposed inadequacy of the staff in adapting to the program. Conclusion Software reliability is frequently based on the needs for which it is put. (Myers, 1976) FLARE was an ideal software program for the diverse nature of functioning of the SBC. Given the large number of functions in different categories which were envisaged in a Borough Council as SBC, software which caters for different levels is ideal. The agreement made with FLARE also included provision of service, consultancy and training. Since ultimately the employees of the SBC were to operate the system, their training was critical. A Borough Council is not likely to have people who are attuned to functioning in a flexible, information technology rich environment, thus there is a need to train them in both soft and hard skills when such a change over of systems is undertaken. It is apparent that neither the Borough nor the provider of FLARE had taken into account the importance of taking the employees on board which finally resulted in the problems brought out in the case study. (Flare Case Study, Nd) However since the system has been reasonably effective so far, the following recommendations are made:- Allot additional budget for training and undertake a supplementary training program. Review the complete training package along with the employees to seek their total involvement in the supplementary training program. Design the training program based on interaction with the employees, thereby matching training needs of the system with the aspirations of the employees. Appoint a manager who will look specifically into training to enable achievement of objectives laid down. Reference: 1. Flare Case Study. (Nd (No Date) 2. Myers, Glenford J. (1976). Software Reliability : Principles and Practices. New York: John Wiley. 3. Tannenbaum, S I. Yuki, G. (1992). Training and Development in Work Organizations. Annual Review of Psychology. Vol 43: Pp 399-441. Read More