To what extent and in what sense can we say that professional and managerial careers are gendered and radicalised - Essay Example

?Running head: To what extent and in what sense can we say that professional and managerial careers are gendered and radicalized? Insert         Insert Grade Course Insert Tutor’s Name 14 March 2012 To what extent and in what sense can we say that professional and managerial careers are gendered and radicalized? Introduction Professional and managerial personnel include workers who have attained a higher level of education; therefore, they are skilled employees who have relevant experience in their areas of study such as, managers and technicians. For a long time, such careers were male-dominated, but today, women are moving to the hitherto male-dominated professionals, for instance, pilots, drivers, technicians, lawyers, and medical personnel among others (Watts, 2009, p.38). As a result, women are breaking the glass ceiling by beating all odds in order to fit in the once male-dominated society. In the 60s, the role of female, especially in America was changing, with more women having paid jobs, and an increase in their dissatisfaction on gender disparities (Walsh, 2010). However, according to the International labour office, Geneva (2004, p.1), the employment situation for women to date continues to show signs of inequality in terms of pay, market participation, and unemployment rates compared to that of men. In addition, there is a notable slow rate of progress in women’s managerial positions compared to men; as a result, majority of men continue to occupy the top jobs, leaving women in lower categories. This paper will discuss the equality and diversity literature concerning the professional and managerial careers, as well as the changing context in the management and professional careers. The paper will wide up by recommending the effective measures for solving these disparities. Literature Review Gender and inequality in professional and managerial careers Majority of women and men have specific qualities that make them suitable in certain positions in both professional and managerial careers. Therefore, equal distribution of labor and employment opportunities should be in existence (Alvesson and Billing, 2009, p.174). Moreover, women continue to face the glass ceiling, and even as managers, the chances of advancements are limited compared to those of men. Needless to say, women are sometimes forced to work harder in order to prove themselves compared to men (International labour office, Geneva, 2004, p.2). In addition, the professional and managerial careers require extended working hours, which influence chances of promotion; however, it is difficult for women to take up the long working hours, because they have other responsibilities as mothers and wives. As a result, men stand at an advantage in these careers, leaving women to cater for family alone, which is very unfair, as women are denied the chances of career advancement. According to Watts (2009, p.41), rejecting long-working hours is a catalyst for job loss, or lack of promotion opportunities. Therefore, creating a work-family balance is important for both the employer and the employees; indeed, family should not be a cause of inequality for women. According to Acker (2008, p.443), all organizations have some aspects of inequalities, especially gender-wise; however, organizations vary in the degree of the presence and severity of disparities. A survey conducted by ILM, on 3,000 employees revealed that barriers exist for women who seek senior positions in organizations in the United Kingdom. As a result, managerial career aspirations for women continue to lag behind compared to those of men (The Guardian, 2011). The study also revealed that 24% of women below the age of 30years start their own business compared to 20% of men who do the same (The Guardian, 2011). Therefore, this study reveals that there is a high level of unemployment for women compared to men, which results to business ownership. As mentioned earlier, women are commonly under-represented in the managerial and professional careers; for instance in 1994, SAS airline consisted of 156 top managers, only six of them were women, a clear indication of under-representation (Alvesson and Billing, 1997, p.137). However, in these previous years, the under-representation was supported by lack of high education for women and lack of work experience. Moreover, radical changes have taken place in the present, whereby, more women are investing in education to a level of masters and PHD; however, they still face inequality challenges in the job market. Gender is the difference between men and women; in the early years, most jobs were male-dominated, and therefore, most managers were men who had white-collar jobs, while women were always in the lower ranked jobs. However, according to Acker (2008, p.444), managerial ranks have changed and comprise of women, especially as clerks and secretaries. Despite the change, these careers are of the low ranks; hence, men continue to dominate the top ranks. Despite the distribution of women to various class structures in the organization, gendered assumptions continue to shape the different classes of men and women. A study conducted in Norway in 1994 revealed that, women in an engineering firm were forced to work for long hours as their male counterparts. In addition, they were required to put their work first before their families, (Acker, 2008, p.445). Therefore, masculine–stereotyped patterns force women to adapt to work objectives that affect their family responsibilities. This creates an unfair scenario for the women, since both work and family are part of their lives. The male dominated careers still have some disparities, for instance, only few women practice surgery as opposed to men, and therefore, women are entitled to lower wages compared to men. Reasons Why Professional & Managerial Careers are Gendered The changes in employment and income have contributed to change in attitudes concerning gender equity. Perrons (2009, p.3) adds that, today, women are capable of accessing credit and acquiring mortgage without the assistance of men. Therefore, gender balance is evident today compared to the previous century; however, gender equality has not been fully achieved and it occurs in slow pace. According to Pettit and Hook (2009, p.104), men and women who have attained high levels of education have the opportunity of being employed in the managerial and professional careers. However, these two genders may not be employed in the same profession. A study revealed that, 59% of women have the chance of being employed in professional occupation compared to 50% of men. In contrast, 7% of women are likely to be employed in managerial careers compared to 16% of men in managerial occupations (Pettit and Hook, 2009, p.104). These figures are surprising and still indicate an existing inequality in executive jobs. Therefore, some studies show that the high levels of education contribute to high opportunities for employment for both women and men, while other studies oppose this argument, especially in a male-dominated field. Needless to say, the traditional beliefs have played a huge role in fostering gender inequality in professional and managerial careers. Traditionally, men believed that women are inferior and they should take up the family responsibilities of care giving while the men work. Breaking this ceiling has been tough for women in their fight to gain recognition in the society. Therefore, gender inequality continues to prevail even in the 21st century. McKinsey & company (N.d, p.7) argue that, the double syndrome, which involves combining work and family responsibilities, is a major contributor to the existing inequality. Women are the centrepiece of a home, and for that reason, they are involved in childbearing, child rearing, and family care, among other responsibilities. As a result, they will require maternity leaves and emergency leaves incase of a family emergency. A study conducted on the European men and women revealed that, women contributed twice as much time as men for family, and therefore, the question lies in whether this double burden of women makes them eligible for managerial positions. This factor hinders their chances for career development and success, as they cannot devote their full time to work only. Therefore, childbearing or rearing is considered a barrier for employers and employee promotion. In addition, the dominance of men in careers is also a hindrance for women participation, whereby, men are more assertive than women are on how they rise to the top. Therefore, men need to assist in family responsibilities through flexible working hours and paternity leaves where necessary. McKinsey & company (N.d, p.8) further add that, in a male-dominated work environment, women have difficulties achieving managerial positions. Women also have difficulties identifying with success due to psychological obstacles such as family. Moreover, it is clear that a glass ceiling exists especially in gendered organizations, whereby, women are less represented, and the women who are fortunate enough to make it to the top are paid less compared to their male colleagues. A salary survey of March 2000 in the United States revealed that women were paid only 72% of the men’s income, a clear evidence of the exiting glass ceiling (Wrigley, 2002, p.28). Therefore, gendered professionals are still evident in the 21st century, clearly indicating the level of gender inequality that exists, despite the acquired knowledge and level of education. The Changing Context of Professional and Managerial Careers In the course of the 20th century, both managerial and professional employment increased; however, men continued to dominate majority of the jobs. Nevertheless, women’s share in these professions doubled from 20% - 48% (Amott and Matthaie, 1996, p.341). The women’s determination to access higher education has contributed to their entrance in the managerial and professional careers as graduates. In addition, educational opportunities have impacted positively on the labor market by providing opportunities for women career-wise. However, lower education levels contribute to low rate of participation in the labor market. Needless to say, the jobs that are dominated by women are less likely to pay well, for instance, school teachers, nurses or social workers; however, women have not given up and continue to thrive in male-dominated careers such as drivers, pilots, ship captains, and engineers among others. In addition, difference in gender pay has declined over the years, as employment opportunities have risen; women are in a position to acquire mortgages, a task that was previously impossible due to the high rate of male dominance. China is one of the countries with the highest number of female employees, 50% working full-time; the educational level in China has also been rising, therefore closing the gap that existed between men and women (Yukongdi and Benson, 2005, p.12). In 2002, female students represented 47% and 44% in higher education; this is according to China statistics yearbook of 2003 (p12). Therefore, women in this country are empowered through promotion of education, which guarantees suitable employment, a strategy that is geared towards eliminating gender inequality. China’s one-child policy has contributed to less demanding lives for women, and therefore, women dedicate their time to career advancement. This is not the case in other countries like the United States, United Kingdom, or African countries, where a woman has to balance between employment and family (Yukongdi and Benson, 2005, p.13). In addition, organizations today are ensuring that employees attain a balance between work and family. Lessons should be learnt from China, where women are making significant achievements in the field of employment through career advancement in both managerial and professional careers. Needless to say, wage gap is another alarming issue. With the decrease in male dominance in the 21st century, there is a remarkable increase in wage gap among women. Those who are fortunate enough to access higher education stand at an advantage of earning high salaries compared to their colleagues in clerical or service jobs, which are of low wages. Therefore, inequality still exists as we progress into the future. Male dominance is likely to decrease in the future; however, unless women continue to invade the male-dominated careers, wage gap will continue to rise among women. Recommendation Organizations should embrace diversity in their workforce. Here, diversity training and management programmes can be implemented to fight inequalities at the place of work. Diversity contributes to better decision-making and effective problem solving process, hence, the organization is capable of competing globally. According to the International labour office, Geneva (2004, p.3), an employer can improve women’s working environment by ensuring that anti-discrimination legislation is enforced at the workplace, as this will guarantee women equal access to jobs and career advancement. Education on sexual harassment should be fostered, which will create a climate of respect in the place of work. With sexual harassment policies in place, men will not use sex favors for career advancement. Women can also be provided with forums, which solve issues that affect them in their jobs. In a male dominated organization, women should be subjected to training in order to gain experience, which will be a plus in their careers. In addition, more attention should be given on women who have transformed to motherhood, such that, their careers are not affected by maternity leave, which requires career breaks. However, they should be provided with paid leave of absence with a guarantee of a job on return to work, as well as promotions for women who work part-time. Women can only thrive in their careers if they are provided with a family and work balance such as, flexible working hours, parental leave for men and women, and childcare facilities. Such policies will unburden women and force men to assist in family responsibilities. As a result, women will be in a position to dedicate the required attention and time to work and do the same for their families without having to worry. In addition, men should be encouraged to take time off and spend with their families; this lessens the burden for women, as they can concentrate on career advancement and higher education as well. Needless to say, women should also plan well on their families; too many kids may be a hindrance to their aims of career advancing, as they will require many work leaves and divided attention needed to cater for their growing families. Male dominated organizations or careers can be demoralizing for women, especially if they lack support and they are paid less than men are. Therefore, it is important for organizations to understand that women are also beneficial to an organization, as they contribute to the productivity of the organization. Therefore, breaking the glass ceiling, which is inequality, is important in the 21st century, where women are more educated, advanced, and experienced. Conclusion Women changed their fate of staying home when they decided to enter the paid workforce in the 60s. Since then, they have faced many challenges in trying to fit in the male dominated field. The managerial and professional careers have been male-dominated fields for many years; however, breaking this ceiling has not been an easy task, as women seek recognition in the career world. Therefore, the extent to which these careers have been gendered was so high until the 20th century when governments decided to support women in their endeavors. However, male dominance is still evident to date, but radical changes brought about by technology have reduced this dominancy. Creation of awareness on the importance of education has led women to seek higher education, which has resulted to majority landing in the managerial posts worldwide. Indeed, there is hope in the future, especially if the employers support women who are considered minority. This can be achieved through the creation of policies, which assist women in advancing their careers as well as balancing work and family. They include flexible hours, maternity leaves with full pay, paternity leaves, provision of training at the place of work and opportunity to advance in education. Reference List Acker, J. (2008). Inequality Regimes: Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations. Sociologists for Women in Society, SAGE Publications. http://www.sagepub.com/oswcondensed/study/articles/05/Acker.pdf [Accessed 14 March 2012]. Alvesson, M. & Billing, Y. (2009). Understanding Gender and Organizations, second Edition, SAGE Publications Ltd, London. Alvesson, M. & Billing, Y. (1997). Understanding gender and organizations Women in Management Series, SAGE Publisher, London. Amott, T. & Matthaei, J. (1996). Race, gender, and work: a multi-cultural economic history of women in the United States. South End Press Publisher. International labour office, Geneva. (2004). Breaking through the glass ceiling. Women in management, http://www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/292/f267981337. [Accessed 14 March 2012] McKinsey & company N.d, ‘Women matter,’ Gender diversity, a corporate performance driver http://www.mckinsey.com/locations/swiss/news_publications/pdf/women_matter_english.pdf. [Accessed 14 March 2012]. Pettit, B. & Hook, J. (2009). Gendered tradeoffs: family, social policy, and economic inequality in twenty-one countries, Russell Sage Foundation Publisher, New York. Perrons, D. (2009). Women and Gender Equity in Employment; Patterns progress and challenges http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/pdflibrary/wp23.pdf. [Accessed 14 March 2012]. The guardian 2011, Women still face a glass ceiling. Survey finds 73% of female managers believe barriers to advancement still exist, compared with only 38% of men http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2011/feb/21/women-glass-ceiling-still-exists-top-jobs [Accessed 14 March 2012]. Walsh, K. (2010). The 1960s: A Decade of Change for Women Cultural changes led women to fight for equal pay and an end to domestic violence, http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2010/03/12/the-1960s-a-decade-of-change-for-women [Accessed 14 March 2012]. Watts, J. (2009) ‘Allowed into a Man’s World’ Meanings of Work–Life Balance: Perspectives of Women Civil Engineers as ‘Minority’ Workers in Construction’, Gender, Work and Organization, Vol. 16 No.1 http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&hid=112&sid=2e9b0a41-6e69-469c-b717-f2806b1870a2%40sessionmgr112 [Accessed 14 March 2012]. Wrigley, B. (2002). ‘Glass Ceiling? What Glass Ceiling? A Qualitative Study of How Women View the Glass Ceiling in Public Relations and Communications Management’, Journal of public relations research, 14(1), 27–55. Yukongdi, V. & Benson, J. (2005). Women in Asian management, Routledge Publisher, Oxford. Read More