The Modern Rhetorical Practice Based in the Creation of a New Dialect of Language - Essay Example

The novel ‘A Clockwork Orange’ was published in 1962 in London by Anthony Burgess and the William Heinemann Press located in Covent Garden. Accordingto Anthony Burgess’ official biographer Andrew Biswell, the dystopian future society depicted in the novel ‘A Clockwork Orange’ (1962) was charged symbolically with the political atmosphere of the Cold War and the legacy of European fascism and totalitarianism. Burgess was interested in Russian literature and traveled to the USSR in 1961 to tour the country in the Soviet era, during a time when few Westerners were permitted behind the Iron Curtain. (Biswell, 2005) His study of the Russian language led him to create “Nadsat” as a slang language used by a criminal, ultra-violent street culture in the futuristic society in which he set his novel ‘A Clockwork Orange.’ Nadsat was an argot, or underground criminal language, a combination between the English and Russian languages, completely invented by Burgess from his imagination as a literary device for the novel. “In his autobiography, Anthony Burgess relates that Nadsat developed as a result of a number of factors. First and foremost was a group of British teens in the late 1950s called the Edwardian Strutters. ‘These were youths dressed very smartly in neo-Edwardian suits with heavy soled boots and distinctive coiffures’. The British teens, who were prone to violence, inspired not only the look and behavior of the main character, Alex, but they later gave Burgess a blueprint by which he constructed Nadsat... One day while poring over the Cyrillic alphabet, the solution came to him: The vocabulary of my space-age hooligans could be a mixture of Russian and demotic English, seasoned with rhyming slang and the gypsys bolo." (Nelson, 2010) The novel was written by Burgess following a nervous breakdown that left him hospitalized after returning from service in the British Empire in Borneo and other parts of South East Asia. The contrast of Western Society compared to Malaysia, the culture of which Burgess had studied deeply and written three books about, may have contrasted distinctly with Europe in his mind upon returning. It is from this heightened cultural sensitivity that Burgess amplifies his fears rooted in the fascist, totalitarian, and violent past of Europe by projecting them onto English street culture. Burgess saw in the early way that youth were being shaped by advertising and mass-media to adopt styles, and with that identity, a sub-cultural distinction of ideas that set them apart and gave cohesion to the new group. Economically, Burgess analyzed the way poverty led to fascism and violence, and also the relation of power and wealth to poverty through doctors, institutions, and technology. To summarize: The Cold War / World War II Russian Literature, Language, & Travel to Russia Critique of Mass-media & Effects of Advertising on Youth Vigilance against Police State, Totalitarianism, & Fascism These represent the social, political, and economic forces most important in inspiring Anthony Burgess to write ‘A Clockwork Orange’ and invent the Nadsat argot. Anthony Burgess considered ‘A Clockwork Orange’ to be one of his minor and lesser important works but it was to be his most popular and the novel he is most remembered for due to the cinematic treatment of the book directed by Stanley Kubrik. (Kubrik, 1971) Thus, the novel and the film can be seen as forming a larger continuum, with the language of Nadsat and the distinctive style of the characters being faithfully portrayed by the director in accordance with the text of the book. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this essay, we will be concerned with the book and not the film, and so addressing the novel itself as a whole, not as part of any larger work of which it is a part. The essay will analyze the argot or slang-language “Nadsat” using the strategies of classical and modern Rhetoric, and in this context Nadsat can be taken as an example in the larger whole of the novel ‘A Clockwork Orange’. For purposes of analysis in the context of Rhetoric, the essay will focus on how the protagonist of the novel, Alex, a young hipster and gang member in a dystopian, totalitarian future society, uses Nadsat to communicate with other characters of the novel. Furthermore, Nadsat will be analyzed not only in terms of the character’s own rhetoric, but in terms of the author’s rhetoric, or how Burgess creates Nadsat as a rhetorical device in order to build sympathy and identification with his main character. Burgess’ protagonist, Alex, in ‘A Clockwork Orange’ is important because he is a tragic hero and a symbol of the era in which the book was written. In Alex and his difficulties are represented the problems and real lives of millions of European youth who grow up in mass-media environments where they can be programmed stylistically to ultra-violence. If we consider how the totalitarian police state of the future would express itself in youth culture, we see in Alex a mixture of the pop music fan of the early Beatles variety, programmed with sophisticated advertising techniques that use style and concepts akin to “coolness” in the 60’s to turn him into an unconscious psychopath. The portrait is further illustrated by the arrogance and hatred that fuse in a mocking, insubordinate attitude that imagines that the new state of being in ultra-violence is the best, as it is the latest, newest, most fashionable development at the time. ‘A Clockwork Orange’ critically deconstructs dominant aspects of Western society in the Cold War by making them even more “other” – using a fusion of the Russian language and English jive. With this example, the way that Nadsat is used by Burgess as a rhetoric device to build sympathy and identification, even admiration despite his character’s morally reprehensible actions, the essay will look at this rhetorical tactic by the author in three contexts: 1. Ancient Greek Rhetorical Theory – as represented by Aristotle’s Rhetoric 2. Ancient Roman Rhetorical Theory – as represented by Rhetorica ad Herennium 3. Modern Rhetorical Theory – as represented by the overview of James Herrick Through reviewing the main treatises of ancient Greek and Roman thought on rhetoric, the essay will identify rhetorical devices as used by Anthony Burgess in ‘A Clockwork Orange’ and interpret reasons that the author chose these methods of argumentation to communicate his theme. Aristotle’s Rhetoric is the most fundamental of all treatises on the subject, as the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: “The structure of Rhet. I & II is determined by two tripartite divisions. The first division consists in the distinction among the three means of persuasion: The speech can produce persuasion either through the character of the speaker, the emotional state of the listener, or the argument (logos) itself. The second tripartite division concerns the three species of public speech. The speech that takes place in the assembly is defined as the deliberative species. In this rhetorical species, the speaker either advises the audience to do something or warns against doing something. The speech that takes place before a court is defined as the judicial species." (Rapp, 2010) Following the text, we can represent these categories of rhetoric as posited by Aristotle as the ‘three means of persuasion’ and the ‘three types of public speech’. The three means of persuasion are: Ethos – this is the ethic or moral base of the communicator Pathos – this is the ability of the communicator to share emotion with the audience Logos – this is the logic used by the communicator to explain the view To apply these to Burgess’ use of Nadsat as a literary device and to determine which of these techniques he employs as an author, for an author’s communication is in many ways no different than an orator and valid under the analysis of rhetoric, the question can be viewed from the position of the character and from the position of the author. In the first example, Alex’s use of Nadsat creates for the reader the same that it creates in the character, namely a sense of admiration for the character of Alex, despite its murderous base, because of the language that he uses. This language, the argot slang of a futuristic underworld, makes his actions seem “cool” in the way new ideas are introduced through mass-media in pop culture. As a rhetorical device employed by the character, Alex uses a type of pathos in his slang as a rhetorical device, in a manner that connects him with readers through shared emotion and feeling. He becomes a sympathetic character also as Burgess portrays him as suffering in a distinctly modern way in a type of unconsciousness to identity, yet in positioning Alex as an anti-hero Burgess uses the rhetorical technique of ethos as he as an author seeks to bond with the audience over a shared value, namely the opposition to violence, totalitarianism, and fascism. Burgess’ use of language through Nadsat makes Alex as a character more “other” to the reader. In highlighting Alex’s otherness through rhetorical devices, Burgess creates a common ethos with his audience. That is his goal in one manner when deploying this as a literary device in the construction of the novel. In terms of the novel itself, it can be viewed as a type of speaking to the assembly, though the crowd is the dispersed readership, and at the same time a rhetorical work because in its themes there is actually an advocacy to do the opposite of the anti-hero presented by Burgess as a message to society at large. Also fundamental to our concept of Rhetoric is the work commonly attributed to Cicero which modern scholars dispute, namely the Latin text Rhetorica ad Herenniu. Whereas in the Rhetoric of Aristotle the fundamental divisions of the types of rhetoric can be ascertained and applied to the text, the example of Rhetorica ad Herenniu will be used primarily to review types of rhetorical argument a communicator may employ when explaining a message or seeking to persuade. Rhetorica ad Herenniu generally shares the division of types of rhetoric as posited by Aristotle and listed above, which can be translated the Epideictic, Deliberative, and Judicial. In Book 1:3 of Rhetorica ad Herenniu, the author lists the ‘Five Capabilities of a Good Orator’: 1. Invention 2. Arrangement 3. Style 4. Memory 5. Delivery “The speaker, then, should possess the faculties of Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, and Delivery. Invention is the devising of matter, true or plausible, that would make the case convincing. Arrangement is the ordering and distribution of the matter, making clear the place to which each thing is to be assigned. Style is the adaptation of suitable words and sentences to the matter devised. Memory is the firm retention in the mind of the matter, words, and arrangement. Delivery is the graceful regulation of voice, countenance, and gesture.” (Rhetorica, 1954) While these are just some of the many divisions of rhetorical methods and proofs introduced in Rhetorica ad Herenniu, they can be applied in the context of Burgess’ novel to interpret whether or not he is applying good communication practices when using Nadsat as a literary device in ‘A Clockwork Orange’. On the issue of invention, the way it is defined is counter-intuitive to the futuristic and imaginative world of Burgess in ‘A Clockwork Orange’. Yet, despite the reversal, Burgess’ work shows invention by building an anti-world so extreme and vivid in its excess that the problems and issues he was communicated become accentuated as themes. With relation to arrangement, the use of Nadsat is a brilliant example with rhyme and meter constructed to a future rhythm that sets the state of ideas in the present context in order in the reader. Burgess in undoubtedly a master of style, for few others save Joyce have been able to create an entirely new, imaginary language as both literary device and rhetorical tool. Memory in this instance is not relevant to the presentation of media, but in Burgess we see the use of collective memory of war experiences, totalitarianism, and violence being invoked as a rhetorical tool. The delivery of the novel is without dispute, for it has a high position in the canon of modern English literature. Turning to the modern view of Rhetoric as exemplified by James Herrick in his “Overview of Rhetoric,” the author lists a number of classifications and characteristics that can be used in the analysis of the effectiveness of rhetorical methods, but also in subjectively defining the questions and framing the communications. Herrick’s definition of modern rhetoric includes the characteristics of: Rhetoric is Planned Rhetoric is Adapted to an Audience Rhetoric Reveals Human Motives Rhetoric is Responsive Rhetoric Seeks Persuasion Rhetoric Addresses Contingent Issues Rhetoric Tests Ideas Rhetoric Assists Advocacy Rhetoric Distributes Power Rhetoric Discovers Facts Rhetoric Shapes Knowledge Rhetoric Builds Community “Considering some common meanings of the term rhetoric, such as empty talk, beautiful language, or persuasion… Whereas these meanings frequently are associated with the term, rhetoric was defined as the study or practice of effective symbolic expression.” (Herrick, 2005) In using these criteria as a means to review the rhetorical methods Burgess employs in ‘A Clockwork Orange,’ and looking specifically at the use of the created language Nadsat as an example of a rhetorical method, one can discover the significance of their usage in communicating Burgess’ themes. Nadsat is effective, and indeed in many ways unparalleled as a literary method, because it represents an entire imaginary language that was created by the author. In the sense that Nadsat was planned, it is unique as a rhetorical device and cannot be replicated. That in turn, gave stature to the novel in the literary canon so that it would not only be remembered, but also taught in the academic context. Burgess succeeds in using this as a rhetorical device because it brings his message to a wider audience. If his goal was to reveal human motivation symbolically, Burgess also succeeds by creating a new language for his character Alex that is distinctive. In being responsive, Burgess reacts to the very present social danger of violence, totalitarianism, and fascism, as well as the historical example. Burgess not only responds, but seeks to persuade us to recognize and resist this through understanding. These are valid issues and a powerful advocacy that he seeks to communicate. Through this, Burgess empowers critics of fascism and mass-media by highlighting extreme examples of their risk, and waking the reader up to unconscious, tacit acceptance. In this, Burgess helps the reader discover facts he or she may not otherwise explore, and the entertainment value of the language is a rhetorical tool. Through his novel, Burgess was able to shape the debate of modernity by providing symbols that could be used as examples by other communicators and thus spread his message integrally to a wider audience, with authoritative support from institutions and individuals. Through this he was able to build a community, an awareness, and a fan base in which his message was recognized and supported. Modern rhetoric is less concerned with the categories of types and sub-types of communication than understanding it and maximizing its effectiveness. This is the reason that it is important that Burgess employed an innovative tool of rhetoric in ‘A Clockwork Orange’ with the creation of the imaginary language of Nadsat. In creating a memorable and unique novel, Burgess increases his audience not only at the time of production but also over history. He uses this as a rhetorical method to increase the ability of the reader to remember his message and also for the culture to remember his themes. When an author understands how rhetorical devices work, he or she may use them to communicate with greater effectiveness and range. In the final analysis, Burgess wants us as readers to remember his theme in history, and he creates a unique rhetorical device in ‘A Clockwork Orange’ with the use of the Nadsat language. “Though it may not be widely used, the historical, semantic, and phonological traits of Nadsat give it the capacity to be a valid dialect. The elements of a dialect are there: it is a modified English, yet it is still within understanding; unknown words can be understood through context; it is capable of growing, changing, being created. Burgess opposition to the inclusion of a glossary indicates that he hadnt meant the A Clockwork Oranges unique jargon to be a mere lexicon of invented and borrowed words, but a dialect unto itself.” (Nelson, 2010) Few authors in history have created an entirely new dialect of language for their characters, but in many ways, all characters must speak with their own dialect in order to become real in the minds of readers of fiction. Literary fiction requires the reader to suspend disbelief and follow the story of the characters. The reader will immerse his or her self in the imaginary world of the author, as communicated through language. Thus, rhetorical analysis and theory can help the author structure and write more effective communication when related to character development in fiction. Burgess is a master in rhetoric in devising new ways through which his characters can speak and come to life in the mind of the readers – he creates their voice so that they may communicate his message. Through the use of rhetorical devices, Burgess makes the reader change his sense of morality and empathize with Alex, an otherwise, despicably immoral character. Yet, he does not always do this literally, but through the reversal of symbols and the creation of bleak themes which hope to open up channels of awakening in a world Burgess sees as advancing powerfully, but with serious moral flaws. In communicating his themes across history, Burgess is a master of rhetorical tools in literature and ‘A Clockwork Orange’ is a unique example of successful modern rhetorical practice based in the creation of a new dialect of language. Sources: Aristotle (Translated by W. Rhys Roberts) (2005). Rhetoric. eBooks@Adelaide. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: < http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8rh/> Burgess, Anthony (1995). A Clockwork Orange. New York: Norton. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: < http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Kb5_Q0_AILIC> Burton, Gideon O. (2010). Rhetorica ad Herennium (1st Cent. B.C.). Silva Rhetoricae (rhetoric.byu.edu). Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Caplan, Harry (1954). Rhetorica ad Herennium. The Loeb Classical Library. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Chatman, Seymour Benjamin (2005). Coming to terms: the rhetoric of narrative in fiction and film. Google Books. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Culp, Rita Gina Dr. (2008). The underlying rhetoric of the film A Clockwork Orange. Introduction to Rhetorical Studies. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: < http://culpgina.efoliomn.com/uploads/clockworkorange.pdf> Herrick, James (2005). The History and Theory of Rhetoric. Boston: Pearson Education. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Kubrick, Stanley (1971). A Clockwork Orange: A Screenplay. Daily Script. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: < http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/A+Clockwork+Orange.pdf> McCrum, Robert (2005). Unearthly powers. The Guardian UK. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Nelson, Cole (2010). A guide to Nadsat talk in Anthony Burgess A Clockwork Orange. The Helium. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Prelli, Lawrence J. (2006). Rhetorics of display. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: Rapp, Christof. (2010). Aristotles Rhetoric. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Date accessed Dec. 10th, 2010: < http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ > Read More